a See) or es )r70 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ey &\ Society of New Zea\and „ukl ioe NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE EIE, VOL e EDITED AND PUBLISH UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF i GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE BY JAMES HECTOR, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S. JF IssvEp, Max 1880. WELLINGTON: VAY 2 190] md Rises G. < DEN "m e» PREFACE, Taz Editor has to acknowledge the assistance of the following gentlemen in revising their papers for the press :—Messrs, Frankland, Kirk, T. W. Kirk, Buchanan, Knight, Skey, Kemp, and Newman. While doing so he would call the attention of writers to the necessity for great care in preparing their manuscript for the printer. It is impossible that a volume of such varied contents can be entirely free from error, but the difficulty of deciphering manu- script adds much both to the chance of error and the expense of publication. In some cases it has been possible to print papers with any approach to correctness only by a careful study of the author’s mode of forming letters, aided by reference to dictionaries and catalogues. A scientific record such as our Transactions is only of value if exact; and the Editor makes these remarks purely with the intention of averting the irritation often caused to writers by the occurrence of mistakes (arising from imperfections in the manuscript), which they are perhaps inclined to attribute to the editing branch of the Institute. An acknowledgement is due to Mr. Buchanan for drawing the illustrations on stone, and to Mr. Gore for the meteorological record. Also to the officers of the lithographic and photo-lithographie departments, who, by the kind permission of the Colonial Secre- tary, have assisted in the completion of the plates. ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA. PAGE 115, line 3 from below, for Ctenopodium read Chenopodium. 159, line 19, for native read Nature. 160, line 4, and 163, line 9, for Kaipara-te-hau read Ka-para-te-hau. 162, line 3, for Rongi read Rongo 227, line 6, for Munipari read Muiiyud: 228, in the second table, after sadikit insert kichi. 229, line 16, for the first ayo read aya. 230, line 5, for Khambi read Khamti. » in the second table, under tagata insert ola (life). pe v » » -.,. bangata = oranga (life). 3 » he kanaka insert ke-ola-ana (life). g line i7. es There is no read By conversion there is close. », line 18, after word insert man being life. » line 22, after Malay insert and (by conversion) of Samoan, Maori, and Hawaiian. 231, line 19, for Takha read Yakha. 235, last line, for 235 read 252. 236, line 1, for 496 read 513. 240, in the fourth column, line 14, did idup, Malay insert bula, Fijian 245, line 24, for Ziphius read Epiod 272, line 2 from below, and 273, "us T for Declava read Declana. 281, line 15, for Asteriseus read Asteriscus 294, line 3, for hairy read double. 360, line 26, for thyssoid read thyrsoid. CON TEN? 3. TRANBACTIORNS. I.—MiscELLANEOUS. PAGES Arr. I. The pan ie rpg in New — d A. em M.A., LL.B. 3—23 II. Influence of Yoreis on Climate and Rainfall. By Frederick s. Peppercorne, C.E 4—32 III. Notes on Port Nicholson iud ib Natives in 1800. By Major Charles Heaphy, V. 32—39 IV. On kn gero of er Zealand Weather Picci By Doni: rR.A.E 40—49 V. On ds “nora a de pim nate Solus at the Use p Projectile Weapons. By Coleman Phillips 50—63 VI. On the ie By W. Colenso, F.L. e .. 603—108 VII. dew piis & better wii of the Maori Race. = W. Col . 108—147 VII. A few Remarks on a Cavern near Cook's ` Well, at Tolaga Ba; ay, and o spi : [ine costata) found there. By W. Colenso 147—150 IX. Notes on an t Manufactory of Stone Implements at ae Mouth of FS Otckai Creek, Brighton, Otago. ce Prof. Julius von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S., Director of the Canterbury Museum 150—153 X. Notes on the Colour-Sense of the Maori. By James W. Stack .. 153—158 XI. Remarks on Mr. Mackenzie Cameron’s ies = the Kahui Tipua. By James W. Stack XII. Notes on the spei Stars x other Celestial Objects By J. H; Po . 159—164 . 165—175 XIII. Partial D (Paper N No. 3): "On the Origin of the Visible Uni. vers y Prot. A. W. y ee ua F.C.S., President of the Philosophical Institute of Canter . 175—181 XIV. — IMS is Pro i 4): On E dni Problem of Stellar Collisi A. W. Bickerton .. 181—186 XV. On the Pw z Doa and Systems. By Prof. A. W. Bickerton 187—197 XVI. On the Birth of Nebulæ. By Prof. A. W. Bickerton .. .. 197—205 XVII. On the Doctrine of oe = Frederick W. I .. 205—215 XVIII. A Reply to Mr. Franklan “ The Doctrin ind- Stuff.” By C. W. Richmond, A Fudge of the Supreme Court of New Zealand .. 215—223 XIX. PATE — other Barat Fossil Words come with Primey n-Aryan Languages of EYTT e Borders. By J. d Thomson, F.R.G.S., F.B.S.8.A.. .. 223—237 XX. i e Connection. By J. Turnbull cae v .. 237—240 IL. —Zooroex. XXI. Notes on Ziphius ( Epiodon) move-zealandie, von Haast—Goose- ed Whale. By Prof. rient von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S., Director of the Canterbury Muse .. 241—246 XXII. On the Occurrence of the elcnppel Dotterel p Hiaticula ry . W. Kirk, apia ) in Ms New “Zealand. ES sistant in the Col oe oe oe 246—247 Contents. PAGES. XXIII. — on some curious — of New Zealand Birds. By T. W. Kirk . 248—249 XXIV. Notes on fee Nesting = ot the Orange-watled UN. By W. D. Campbell, As t. C.E . 249—250 XXV. On the pad ene Frog. purs . Fitz izinger. Transl lated jon ogy of the Voyage of the « Novara," by Prof. Hatton 250—251 XXVI. Pore ~~ teal on the Animal E my and Habits of of our New Zealand Lizards, asta to be a new a of Naultinus. By W. Colenso, F.L.S. 251—264 XXVII. Description of a new e deer; and Species of Butterfly of the Sub-family Satyrine. By R. W. Verus C.M.E.S.L. . 264—266 XXVIII. umo oaa a (?) new Species of the Family Leucanide, a T (?) new Species of the Genus (?) Chlentas By R. W. Sereda 267—270 XXIX, T ana 1 Description of a pene een of JP "T einertzhagen . 270—271 XXX. On dad ae Buller. By Prof. Hutton, of the Otago Uni. fae .. 271—27: XXXI. ‘a cui to the Entomology of New TESI By Prof. Hutton 272—274 XXXII. To n to the C Fauna of New maine By Prof. ee 274—276 XXXIIL S APREA e the List of New Jaa von By Prof. athe: 277—278 XXXIV. Seana of new Star-fishes from New Zealand. By : "x E. Verrill. From the Trans, — rere 1861. grey: ki Prof. Hutton .. 278 —288 XXXV. On às so rcs Js Prionoplus reticularis, with Diagnoses of Ns and Pot By Capt. T. Bro 284—988 XXXVI. Description of the Larva of Pericoptus 5 truneatus, with Observations o Habitat. By Capt. T. Bro . 288—290 XXXVII. Furt = er Notes on New Zealand Vendi By W. M. Maskell . 291—301 XXXVII. On Melicerta ringens and meus repens. By A. Hamilton .. 301—308 XXXIX. List g Marine Mollusca found in the neighbourhood of or Wallington. By T. W. Kirk, Assist cen i cdd lonial Muse .. 803—306 XL. Descriptions of new Marine Shells. By T. W. Exe 5 $ XLI. Notice of the ramets of Vitrina — in New "oed By T. W. Kir 307 XLII. Additions to € Lisi of New Zealand Fishes. By T. W. Kirk .. 308—310 XLIII. On the oe ee of Giant cenas on g New — Coast. By T. W. Kirk ««.. 810—813 XLIV. Description of a new Species of JFalinerat: By T. w. ‘Kirk .. 813—314 XLY. Description of a new Species of Lizard of the Genus — By W. L. Buller, C PI. G., Sc.D., F.R.S. . 814—815 XLVI. Notes on Fishes in Sines Whanganui River. By Captain Mair, F.L.S. aa oe vs . 915—316 IiI.—Borany. XLVII. On ry Botany of m» Tongia Rei By T. F. Sreet, F.L.S. . 817—323 XLVIII. On "By —— ot we Genus Sporadanthus in New Zalio T. P. ee . 924—325 XLIX. A Ped — sociis f the Province Canterbury, with Catalogue 4 mex By J. B. Arm . 825—353 L. Notice of me Occurrence of Ligon piiki. Lab i in Nov Zealand. By D. Petrie, M.A. 354 LI. Notice of the Occurrence of a Peres of Honiphus i in New Zes- land. By D. Petrie . 855—856 Contents. Vii PAGES. LII. Description of a new Species of Ehrharta. T D. Petrie ++ 856—357 LIII. Notes on the Growth of oT Tree a Soil Mount n uckland. Gillies, a “Fuge of the $ — of New Zeala si e . 857—358 LIV. A jet of a few new Plants from our New foilend Fore inis; with dried Specimens of the same. By W. Colenso, F.L.S... 859—367 LV. Contribution d the aia dase of New Zealand. By Charles Knight, F.L.8. . 867—379 LVI. Notes on s Bend Plants. By J. Goshen, F. L. S. .. 38 2 LVII. On Grasses and Fodder Plants. By S. M. Curl, M.D. .. 382—393 LVIIL Descriptions of new Flowering Plants. By T. Kirk, F.L.S. 893—397 LIX. Description of a new Species of Cladophora. By T. Kirk 397 LX. Notice of the urrence of Lagenophora emphysopus and iilos Mei Plants i in New Zealand. By T. Kirk.. .. 997—399 IV.—CnuzwisTRY. LXI. On pee Results obtained upon some of the Argentiferous Salts ich me dac By SRM Shah Analyst to the Geological Survey Departmen: . 401 LXII. Further Notes = A “Movement of Camphor on Water, By William Skey . 403—406 LXII. On the Mode in w which Oil ved as a Nudus i in poii aturate ted Saline Solutions ; with Notes on the Mode of Anon of Solid Nuclei, By William m Skey .. 407—411 LXIV. On the. Cause of a Popeia of Camphor towards Light. By : William Ske 411 LXV. On the Nat d ‘the Precipitate NESO by etal Mercuri Salis oe aia of Essential Oils. By William Skey . ° 412414 LXVI. On the Decomposition of Argentic-oxide by Mercury. By William Skey is on Fi xs fes 414 a V.—Gzo LXVIL On Wind-formed Lakes. By J. s EE F.G.S. +. 415—416 LXVII. On Bidwill’s Front Hills. By J. C. Crawford . 416—418 LXIX. E "m oe and yea of Te Zealand. By w. .. 418—420 PROCEEDINGS. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Account of Two Journeys to the se of mue: poe By G. — M.H.R. (abstract) ae 423 Remarks on Hematite and Spathie Iron Ores. By Dr. H ector -424 eg? — 2t > x et Aim of the beber ame Pim iid Society? By » 5 eae tori a Theory sondit for the Movements of the Magneiio Needle. By the Hon. R. Hart, M.L.C. . - Remarks on pear Spans and Owiilin, vith ditm to particular Locali e Wellington District. By G. W. Williams (abstract) . 428—429 Election ot vidue of New Zealand Institute 431 On the d of ie for the ETES of Sugar, eto. By 8. M. Con, M.D. (abstract) . 431 Account of us pedit Exhibition, By Dr. Heetor oe os ar 432 A few Remarks on Art Perspective. By R. T. Holmes .. oe os 432 vii . Contents. Abstract Report of Council ae Fe ee se oe Election of Officers for 1880 He $$ S P Anniversary Address by the President, Dr. Rond zé Se zs On Neobalena marginata and Kogia breviceps. By Dr. Hector. .. ae Ona ~ of Chalk recently discovered near Oxford in Canterbury. By Dr. Hecto: On Moa ids By Dr. Hec us Further Contributions to the E ot New Zealand. By W. L. Buller, C.M.G., Sc.D. S. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. Address by the President, the Rev. Dr. Purchas s Notes on a Disease among Sheep in the Waikato District. By Major W. G. Mair On the Mound-builders of North America. By J. Adams, B.A. .. =. Notes on the Growth of Trees on Clay Soils. By W. Atkins The possible Pacification of the World by means of a rational International Policy. By the Rev. S. Edgar The Distress in England: its Causes and iano’. By J. C. Firth. ae Note on Spiral Markings on Trenails. By the Rev. Dr. Purchas .. ‘ue Concerning Alcohol. By E. A. Mackechnie Notes on the Rise and Mn um of ene and the Fine Arts generally By Albin Martin The rdg ie En gl and: its Causes and Daa: being a Reply to Mr. irth’s paper on the same subject. By the Rev. S. E pis on the asian Horned Frog ( Phrynosoma xen a “By B. 8S. Booth. On Landscape Art in the Province of Auckland. By K. Watkins .. A Remarks on Lepidosiren and other Fishes. By T. F. Cheeseman .. så Abstract of Annual Report y > = a oe Election of Officers for 1880 A me PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. On a Universal Code of Signals. By C. W. Adams .. ve On Musical Tones in the Notes of Australian Birds. By C. W. prem oe Notes upon the Height of Mount Cook. By C. W. Adams 4* rà Abstract of Annual Report i as x ee es Election of Officers for 1880 = Notes on Ceramic and Industrial Art Hooded. By Prof. von Haast ve OTAGO INSTITUTE. A Criticism of Herbert Spencer's ** First Principles." By the Rev. Prof. Salmond The Unseen Universe. By J. S. Webb x zx ue gn Socialism, an Appeal to First Principles. By the Rev. Dr. Roseby n The Diptera of New Zealand. By Professor Hutton~ .. oe ee On George Eliot’s Poems. By the Rev. J. Upton Davis ve an Description of a new Fish. By Professor Hutton . ee es Election of Officers for 1880 e. s ee T es Abstract of Annual Report ee .. n ae WESTLAND INSTITUTE. Abstract of Annual Report +“ as 2s es és Election of Officers for 1880 x we ae 2x de 438—439 439 439 439 Contents. ix HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. PAGES. Election of Officers for 1879 "e a os 458 Abstract of Annual Report "e T 458 Memoir of Allan and Richard T NURSE By Ww. Goos as es 459 The Myth of Kae and the Pet Whale of Tinirau. By W. Colenso .. ds 459 Election of Governor of New Zealand Institute s vs os 460 NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Eleventh Annual Report of the Board of Governors x +. 463—464 Museum .. a Ss oe ee v. .. 464—469 Publications is vs os oe s .. 469—470 Meteorology ; oe mis re se à 47 ime-ball Oey nf Me ee .. 470—471 ctn ss 7 s; ; ms ER 471 brary as e. Bn 471 pes b the New Zealand Institute, 1878. 9 a e P 472 A? PB: A.D AX, On the = ee of Education. By W. G. En L.R.C.P. d M.R.C.S. xi—xliv eras Statistics of New Toland i 187 9 $e xlv—xlvii Earthquakes reported in New Zealand during 1879 e e xlvii Comparative Abstract for 1879, and previous years T BE : xlviii Notes on the Weather during 1879 poe "es xlix Record of Papers on New Zealand Natural History, 1879-80 T ix 1 Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute = à = li Ordinary Members . . - Ji—kxiii List of Public Yaskitulions and Individuals i whom this Volume is annii . Ixiv- lxvi Addenda et Corrigenda es s "m am s iv Contents .. vis = cn Le is » v—ix List of Plates um vs a a x Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute zx oe x xi Abstract of Rules and Statutes of the New Zealand Institute e .. Xi—xiii List of Incorporated Societies .. s e xiv Officers of Incorporated Societies, and dote from their Rules .. .. xiv—xvii LIBT OP PLATES. PLATE I. EpwiN.—Diagrams illustrating System of New Zealand Weather Forecast .. » ” » ” ” ” ” ” ” 1 CoLENso.—Moa Bones s P i BickenRToN.—Diagrams illustrative of Partial Impact MaskELL.—Coccide ae Haast.—Ziphius ( S nove- undis - FrenEDAY.— Butterflies AE š. i PETRIE.—Ehrharta thoms 5 T. W. Krngk.—Palinurus 2 i» ea Kyicut.—Lichens ee oe T. Kirx.—Euphrasia disperma s ws TO FACE PAGE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND, INTITULED “THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1807." Boarp or GOVERNORS. (EX OFFICIO.) His Excellency the Governor. | The Hon. the Colonial Secretary, (NOMINATED. ) The Hon. W. B. D. Mantell, F.G.S., W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S., James Hector, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., The Ven. Archdeacon Stock, B.A., Thomas Mason, M.H.R., The Hon. G. Randall Johnson. (ELECTED.) 1879.—Thomas Kirk, F.L.S., The Hon. Robert Stout, M.H.R., W. L. Buller, C.M.G., Sc.D., F.L.S. 1880.—Captain W. R. Russell, M.H.R., W. L. Buller, C.M.G., Se.D., F.R.S., Thomas Kirk, F.L.S. MANAGER. James Hector. Honorary TREASURER. The Ven. Archdeacon Stock. SECRETARY. R. B. Gore. ABSTRACTS OF RULES AND STATUTES. GAZETTED IN THE “ New ZEALAND GAZETTE,” 9 Marcu, 1868. Section I. Incorporation of Societies. 1. No Society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the provisions of “The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867,” unless such Society shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate a sum of not less than fifty pounds sterling annually, for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Er of Governors of the Institute by the Chairman for the time being of the Society. 2. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said Society shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less than £50. 3. The bye-laws of every Society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall provide for the expenditure of not less than one-third of its annual revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public Museum or Library; or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and maintenance of the Museum and Library of the New Zealand Institute, xii New Zealand Institute. 4. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year fail to expend the proportion of revenue affixed in manner provided by Rule 3 aforesaid, shall from thenceforth cease to be incorporated with the Institute. 5. All papers read before any Society for the time Mie incorporated with the Institute, shall be deemed to be communications to the I titute, and may then be published as proceedings or transactions of the Institute, ee to the following regula- tions of the Board of the ine regarding publications :— gulations regarding Publications. (a.) The publications a a Institute shall consist of a current abstract of the proceedings of the Societies for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be intituled, * Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute," and of transactions comprising papers read before the Incorporated Societies (subject, however, to ae as hereinafter mentioned), to be intituled, ‘Transactions of the New and Institute.” (b.) e Institute shall have power to reject any papers read before any of the Incorporated Societies. (c.) Papers so rejected will be returned to the Society before which they were read. (d.) A proportional contribution may be required from each Society towards the cost of publishing the Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute. (e.) Each Incorporated Society will be entitled to receive a proportional number of copies of the Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute, to be from time to time fixed by the Board of Governors (f.) Extra copies will be issued to any of the members of Incorporated Societies at the cost price of publication. 6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from Incorporated Societies and placed in the charge of the Institute, shall be vested in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the property of the Institute. 7. Subject to “The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867,” and to the foregoing rules, all Societies incorporated with the Institute shall be entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the senis for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs. 8. Upon applieation signed by the Chairman and countersigned by the Secretary of any Society, accompanied by the certificate required under Rule No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under the Seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the foregoing rules of the Institute are complied with by the Society. = Section II. For the Management of the Property of the Institute. 9. All donations by Societies, Public Departments, or Private Individuals, to the Museum of the Institute, shall be acknowledged by a printed form of receipt, and shall be duly entered in the books of the Institute provided for that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may direct. 10. Deposits of articles for the Museum may be accepted by the Institute, subject to -a fortnight’s notice of removal to be given either by the owner of the articles or by the Manager of the Institute, and such deposits shall be duly entered in a separate catalogue, ' ll. Books relating to Natural Science may be deposited in the Library of the Insti- tute, subject to the following conditions :— (a.) Such books are not to be withdrawn by the owner under six months’ notice, if such notice shall be required by the Board of Governors, eae Abstracts of Rules and Statutes, xin (b ) Any funds specially expended on binding and preserving such deposited books, ‘at the request of the depositor, shall be charged against the books, and must be ed io the Institute before their withdrawal, always subject to special angements made with the Board of Governors at the time of deposit. (c.) n books deposited in the Library of the Institute shall be removed for temporary use except on the written authority or receipt of the owner, and then only for a period not exceeding seven days at any one time. 12. All books in the Library of the Institute shall be duly entered in a catalogue ww ie be accessible to the public. - The public shall be admitted to the use of the Museum and Library, subject to Ed to be framed by the Board. Section III. 14. The Laboratory shall, for the time being, be and remain under the exclusive management of the Manager of the Institute. SE ON Or Date 28RD Dear 1870. Honorary Members. Whereas the rules of the Societies incorporated under the New Zealand Institute Act provide for the election of Honorary Members of such Societies; but inasmuch as such Honorary Members would not — become members of the New Zealand Institute, and whereas it is expedient to make provision for the election of Honorary Members of ihe New Zealand Institute, it is a declared— lst. Each Incorporated Society may, in the month. of November next, nominate for eleetion as Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute three persons, and in the month of November in each succeeding year one person, not residing in the colony. 2nd. The names, si and addresses of persons so nominated, together with the grounds on which their election as Honorary Members is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the Manager of the New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors at the next succeeding meeting. . 8rd. From the persons so nominated, the Governors may select in the first year not more than nine, and in each succeeding year not more than three, who shall from thenceforth be Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, provided that the total number of Honorary Members shall not exceed thirty. xiv Incorporated Societies, LIST OF INCORPORATED SOCIETIES. NAME OF SOCIETY. DATE OF INCORPORATION. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL Society > - - 10th June, 1868. 10th June, 1868. 22nd October, 1868. AUCKLAND ÍNsTITUTE - - - - - PHILOSOPHICAL [INSTITUTE oF CANTERBURY - Oraco [INSTITUTE - - - 4 > - - 18th October, 1869. WESTLAND INSTITUTE - - = * - - 91st December, 1874. HawxE's Bay PHILOSOPHICAL [INSTITUTE - - - 81st March, 1875. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1879 :— President —A. K. Newman, M.B., M.R.C.P. ; Vice-presidents—Dr. Hector, Martin Chapman; Cowncil—W. L. Buller, C.M.G., Sc.D., etc., C. R. Marten, F. W. Frankland, S. H. Cox, F.C.8., F.G.S., Hon. G. Randall Johnson, W: T. L. Travers, F.G.S., T. Kirk, F.L.S.; Auditor—Arthur Baker; Secretary and Treasurer—R. B. Gore. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1880 :—President—Martin Chapman; Vice-prest- dents—Dr. Hector, C.M.G., F.R.S., Dr. Buller, C.M.G., F.R.S. ;—Council— F. W. Frankland, S. H. Cox, F.G.S., F.C.8., Hon. G. Randall Johnson, M.L.C., W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S., A. K. Newman, M.B., M.R.C.P., J. P. Maxwell, A.LC.E.; Auditor—Arthur Baker; Secretary and Treasurer—R. B. Gore. Extracts from the Rules of the Wellington Philosophical Society. 5. Every member shall contribute annually to the funds of the Society the sum of one guinea. 6. The annual contribution shall be due on the first day of January in each year. 7. The sum of ten pounds may be paid at any time as a composition for life of the ordinary annual payment. 14. The time and place of the General Meetings of members of the Society shall be fixed by the Council and duly announced by the Secretary. Incorporated Societies. Xv AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS For 1879 :— President —Rev. A. G. Purchas, M.R.C.S.E. ; Council —R. C. Barstow, Rev. J. Bates, J. L. Campbell, M.D., J. C. Firth, His Honour Mr. Justice Gillies, T. Heale, Hon. Col. Haultain, G. M. Mitford, J. Stewart, M. Inst. C.E., T. F. S. Tinne, F. Whitaker ; Auditor— T. Macffarlane ; Secretary and Treasurer—T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1880 :—President—F. D. Fenton; Council—G. Aickin, Rev. J. Bates, J. L. Campbell, M.D., J. C. Firth, Hon. Col. Haul- tain, Neil Heath, F.G.S., E. A. Mackechnie, J. A. Pond, Rev. Dr. Purchas, J. Stewart, M. Inst. C.E., S. P. Smith ; Auditor—T. Macffarlane ; Secretary and. Treasurer—T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. Extracts from the Rules of the Auckland Institute. 1. Any person desiring to become a member of the Institute, shall be proposed in writing by two members, and shall be ballotted for at the next meeting of the Council 4. New members on election to pay one guinea entrance fee, in addition to the annual subscription of one guinea, the annual subscriptions being payable in advance on the first day of April for the then current year. 5. Members may at any time ne LI members by one payment of ten pounds ten shillings, in lieu of future annual subsc 10. Annual General Meeting of the eae on the third Monday of February in each year. Ordinary Business Meetings are called by the Council from time to time. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1879 :—President—Professor Bickerton ; Vice-presi- dents—J. Inglis, R. W. Fereday ; Council—Rev. J. W. Stack, Professor Cook, Dr. Powell, Professor von Haast, F.R.S., Dr. Coward, G. W. Hall ; Hon. Treasurer—W. M. Maskell; Hon. Secretary—J. S. Guthrie. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1880 :— President —E. Dobson, C.E.; Vice-presidents —Professor Julius von Haast, F.R.S., the Rev. J. W. Stack; Council— Professor Bickerton, R. W. Fereday, J. Inglis, A. D. Dobson, G. Gray, J. S. Lambert; Hon. Treasurer—W. M. Maskell; Hon. Secretary—Nelson K. Cherrill. Extracts from the Rules of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 21. The Ordinary Meetings of the Institute shall be held on the first Thursday of each month during the months from March to November inclusive. 35. Members of the Institute shall pay one guinea annually as a subscription to the funds of the Institute. The subscription shall be due on the first of November in every Any member whose subscription shall be twelve months in arrears, shall cease to be a member of the Institute, but he may be restored by the Council if it sees fit. 37. Members may compound for all annual subscriptions of the current and future years by paying ten guineas. xvi Incorporated Societies. OTAGO INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1879 :— President —Professor Hutton; Vice-presidents —W. N. Blair, C.E., Professor Scott; Council— W. Arthur, C.E., Robert Gilles, F.L.S., Dr. Hocken, A. Montgomery, D. Petrie, J. C. Thomson, Professor Ulrich ; Hon. Secretary—Geo. M. Thomson; Hon. T'easurer—H. Skey; Auditor—J. S. Webb OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1880 :—President—Dr. Hocken; Vice-presidents— Professor Ulrich, D. Petrie, M.A.; Council—W. Arthur, C.E., W. N. Blair, C.E., A. Montgomery, R. Gillies, F.L.S., W. Macdonald, LL.D., Bishop Nevill, D.D., J. S. Webb; Hon. Secretary—Geo. M. Thomson ; Hon. Treasurer —H. Skey ; Auditor—D. Brent, M.A. Extracts from the Constitution and Rules of the Otago Institute. 2. Any person desiring to join the Society may be elected by ballot, on being proposed in writing at any meeting of the Council or Society by two members, on payment of the annual subscription of one guinea for the year then current. 5. Members may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten pounds and ten shillings, in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 8. An Annual General Meeting of the members of the Society shall be held in January in each year, at which meeting not less than ten members must be present, otherwise the meeting shall be adjourned by the members present from time to time, until the requisite number of members is present. (5.) The session of the Otago Institute shall be during the winter months, from May to October, both inclusive. WESTLAND INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1879 :—President—His Honour Judge Weston; Vice-president—R. C. Reid ; Committee—Dr. James, Dr. Giles, James Pear- son, R. W. Wade, E. B. Dixon, John Nicholson, H. L. Robinson, D. McDonald, W. D. Campbell, Robert Walker, A. H. King, T. O. W. Croft ; Hon. Treasurer—W. A. Spence ; Secretary—John Anderson. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1880 :—President—His Honour Judge Weston ; Vice-president—Dr. Giles, R.M.; Committee—Dr. J ames, J. Pearson, J. Nicholson, H. L. Robinson, R. W. Wade, D. McDonald, J. Anderson, T. O. W. Croft, C. E. Tempest, F. A. Learmonth, J. H. Hankins, A. H. King ; Hon. Treaswrer—W. A. Spence ; Secretary—Richard Hilldrup. Extracts from the Rules of the Westland Institute. 3. The Institute shall consist :—(1) Of life-members, i.e., persons who have at any one time made a donation to the Institute of ten pounds ten shillings or upwards; or persons who, in reward of special services rendered to the Institute, have been unani- mously elected as such by the Committee or at the general half-yearly meeting. (2) Of members who pay two — iwo shillings each year. (3.) Of members paying smaller sums, not less than ten 5. The Institute shall d. a | init reet meeting on the third Monday in the months of December and June. ———— Incorporated Societies. xvii HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS For 1879 :— President —The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu; Vice-president —W. I. Spencer; Council—E. H. Bold, W. Colenso, J. G. Kinross, S. Locke, M. R. Miller, J. A. Smith, F. W. C. Sturm; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer—W. Colenso; Auditor—T. K. Newton. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1880 :— President — The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu; Vice-president —W. I. Speneer; Council—H. Baker, E. H. Bold, W. Colenso, H. R. Holder, J. G. Kinross, M. R. Miller, F. W. C. Sturm; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer—W. Colenso; Auditor—T. K. Newton. Extracts from the Rules of the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute. 3. The annual subscription for each member shall be one guinea, payable in advance, on the first day of January in every year. 4. Members may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten pounds ten shillings in lieu of future annual subscriptions. (4) The session of the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute shall be during the winter months from May to October, both inclusive; and general meetings shall be held on the second Monday in each of those six months, at 8 p.m. TRANSACTIONS. SE TRANSACTIONS NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE, 1879. — I.—MISCELLANEOUS. —— Art, L— The Forest Question in New Zealand. By A. Lecoy, M.A. LL.B. Univ. Paris. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 26th July, 1879.] Introduction. I. Statistics V. Revenue in Europe. . Premises. VI. Estimated Revenue for New Zealand. III. State Forests, VII. Scheme of Management. IV. Revenue derivable. VIII. Value of Timbers. Inrropuction. Amone the various systems already adopted for the purpose of turning to profit the natural resources of the public estate, stands prominently what is called the Public Works policy. This was a broad and bold enterprise, involving future rather than present advantages. Therefore, the time for us to fully appreciate the merits of that policy has not yet come, and what seems desirable to be done in the interval, would be, to avoid the loco- motive crossing the path of the chariot of the State; for our attention may be called to the facts, that the incessant progress of the colony will have the effect of increasing the State expenditure, and that such increase may be required before an adequate augmentation of the revenue is available. Parallel with the Public Works system might be initiated a new policy, tending to promote the interest of the Colonial Treasury, by im- proving and consolidating, instead of exhausting, the revenue derivable from the public estate, by a systematic treatment of the Crown forest lands, which revenue might be increased to such an amount as to provide at any time for the largest portion of the expenditure required for general State 4 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. purposes. Had measures in that direction been carried out ten years ago, when in the House of Representatives Mr. Potts moved, “ That it is desirable Government should take steps to ascertain the present condition of the forests of the colony, with a view to their better conservation ;"—had the forest ques- tion been then more practically investigated and considered in allits aspects, especially in that of the income which State forests, under systematic treat- ment, can afford to the publie purse, without either their climatic advantages being disturbed through the fellings, nor the supply being reduced below the demand, as evidently would have been (and still would be) the case in New Zealand—we might have had by this time the same extent of railways, less a heavy indebtedness, and also fewer alienations of valuable timber lands. Furthermore, we should have now a surplus income, which fund would afford a means for a more equitable distribution of the public revenue towards municipal interests than the present allotment of lands for such purposes can allow. The Government may yet be in time to recur to such a policy, and there are facts demanding their immediate consideration of the question. Thus, the probable duration of the financial resources at present derivable from the sales of the forest lands requires serious attention. If we compute the total area of the Crown forests, which may be accessible and available for absolute disposal, we shall find that it could hardly comprehend more than one- eighth part of the area of the whole estate, officially stated, in 1877, as 29,000,000 acres, valued at £16,000,000. Then, by selling yearly those forests to the amount of £400,000 or £500,000, with the addition, mean- while, of the land grants, endowments, etc., and also adding the value of destruction perpetrated on the leased forests, it becomes evident that these operations, if continued, will, in the course of a few years, com- pletely alienate the most valuable portion of the public estate. Thereby a source of State income, by nature made lasting and abundant, will be dried up for ever. The alienated forest will gradually disappear under the exigences of individual interest, which demand more immediate returns for labour or capital than the conservation of forest lands can afford, and the destruction of the forest areas will lead to disasters resulting from floods and droughts, which will be severely felt by the Colony. However, the State expenditure must be provided for through the ways and means allowed by the Legislature; and the purport of this paper is simply a humble attempt to ascertain, so far as data and information at hand will permit, whether the material interest of the Colonial Treasury, as well as that of the country at large, may not be further promoted through the establishment of State forests than by the temporary financial resources derivable from the forest alienations, Lrcoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand, 5 I.—Sraristics. The following total quantities relating to the area and value of the Crown lands have been compiled from the Survey Department returns, dated 17th of October, 1877, entitled ** Statement showing the area and approxi- mate value of the * unsold land in each County in New Zealand, on 81st of August, 1877 " :— ; AREA AND APPROXIMATE VALUE OF THE COLONIAL Estate on 8lsT AvcvsT, 1877. Situation. Forest Land. | Open Land. | Total Area. ae Ses E Acres. 3 £ In the North Island .. 3,801,612 776,706 4,578,318 2,784,148 » south Island .. 8,717,220 17,295,284 21,012,504 13,236,852 » Stewart Island 393,000 22,000 415,000 58,125 Mountainous or valueless (South Island) .... } 2,886,020 Torars .. ws 7,911,832 18,093,990 29,341,848 | £16,079,125 The official statement does not give the area of the open land in the counties of Wairoa, Hawke Bay, Wanganui, East Taupo, Rangitikei, Manawatu, Waipawa, Hutt, Wairarapa East and West, Raglan, and West Taupo (North Island), Forest lands inserted in the columns agricultural and pastoral, have been included in the column forest land in the above table, II.— Premises. A careful observation of the distinct interests which the colonial estate comprehends, points out of itself, as specially relating to the improvement of the resources derivable therefrom, the advisability of a separate manage- ment applying to the open lands and to the forest lands respectively, each kind of property, whether it be intended for sale or conservation, requiring special treatment under the supervision of officials of special aptitude in their respective departments. On the one hand, agronomists are required for the purpose of rendering the soil and climate of vast and treeless regions better adapted to settlement; whilst, on the other hand, foresters are needed to supervise the conservation of State forests, creating thereby & permanent State revenue. The adoption of a new system for the general administration of the publie estate may partly depend on some preceding legislative action, Still, so far as the forest interest is concerned, it does not appear that there should be immediate need for any changes in the existing forest legislation, otherwise than by appropriating the necessary fund to the creation of the special department. | ——M * App. to Journ. H. of R., 1577, C—9, 6 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. The State Forests Act of 1874, and likewise the Land Act of 1877 (part V.), provide for the establishment of State forests, allowing Government full power to carry their objects into operation. The enactments of the forest law have not, however, hitherto been carried into execution, and it is still generally presumed that there is a superabundance of forest produce for the present and future requirements of the colony—such an opinion not being at all supported by any reliable data or technieal statement. Thus, the whole subject being restricted to the single observation of the presumed yield of the forests taken compara- tively with the amount of the present home consumption, other considera- tions of high importance bearing on the subject are overlooked, namely— 1. That the demand for forest produce, annually supplied out of the publie estate, has already attained such proportions that a considerable State income should be actually derivable therefrom. 2. That the New Zealand timber, ** sui generis" in the world, and generally superior in economie value and fineness to any timber indigenous or im- ported to Europe, commands an export trade there on a large scale, especially on account of the perfect adaptability of several of its species to various purposes of the European requirements, and that a considerable State income may also be realized through a special export duty, intended for the two-fold object of providing for the legitimate rights of the publie purse, and also of maintaining the price of timber for home consumption within moderate bounds. 8. That the progress of the colony, as well as the extension of the timber exports, cannot fail, within a short period of years, to increase the demand for our forest produce to such an extent as to require the full capability, technically determined and regulated, of the New Zealand forests to supply the said increased demand. Should a new organization for the administration of the publie estate have the effect of restricting the disposal of the forest lands to the sale of the standing timber, in such proportion as the forest could supply annually and permanently, and should also the system of leasing the forests be amended or done away with, the material advantages expected to result from those measures may be premised as follows :— 1. The well-regulated sales of the standing timber would afford a per- manent State income amounting* to much above the proceeds from the forest land under the present system of alienation and forest leasing. 2. This restriction would enl the market val of the exist- ing freehold property, the owners, of forest lands especially, not having any longer to complain of a — so prejudicial to the value of their property as that g disposal of the public timber lands at nominal prices, Lercoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 7 With respect to the leasing of the forest lands it may be asked—why should not any disposition of the Crown forest lands follow the same course as that applying to any other property ? that is to say—why should such public property be disposed of otherwise than at a price representing its real value, so as to obtain the legitimate profit for the public purse ? The interest that the present bush licence or leasing system affords to the State is “nil.” To the public it affords timber and wood on con- ditions more or less advantageous. On the other hand, the detrimental effects resulting from such leases are great :—First, the forest is generally worked indiscriminately, without any care for its regeneration, thereby effecting every year the absolute destruction of forests which had just yielded produce to the markets of enormous value. On that score the lessee may say that it is not his business or duty to select and reserve trees which may be required for the purpose of securing the regeneration of the forest. On the other side the public may argue that the law of the country having enacted as a principle that public forests “are to be subjected to skilled management and proper control," the actual destruction of the property through indiscriminate working cannot be considered lawful. The period of years for which these leases are granted at almost nom- inal prices, would lead to the idea of an admitted permanent stagnation in the timber trade, which is not compatible with the fact of the incessant progress of the colony, otherwise the leases would constitute a monopoly of privileges, and thereby be an injustice to the people, who all have to contribute proportionately towards the State expenditure, and who are therefore entitled to claim the ** jus omnium in omnia.” However, all legitimate rights must be recognized and protected, and it is obvious that a new forest administration tending to extend the timber trade to an enlarged sphere of operations, would greatly benefit the lessees of our forests, and they, no doubt, would be glad to join in just and profit- able reforms. II.—Srare Forests: PRELIMINARY OBSERVATION. The establishment of State forests has for its object, not only to provide for a regular and permanent supply of timber and wood, but also to maintain the protection given by nature against the disturbance of the climatic equilibrium, the occurrence of droughts, the disastrous effects of flood-waters, etc., ete., experience having shown the preventive or modifying influence, as the case may be, of extensive forest areas. Furthermore, that the conservation of these woodlands, intended for the general interest, should not be entrusted to the management of private persons as purchasers of them, because forests, considered from a financial point of view, being almost 8 Transactions.—Miscellaneous, the least remunerative of all land cultivations (as private property), the apparent interest of the purchaser would be to realize the value of the timber, and to convert the forest land into agricultural or pastoral, thereby selfishly disregarding the beneficial effects which the existence of the forest afforded to the whole district. In the hands of Governments, forests represent a national interest of the highest importance, not only because of the financial resources which the annual fellings afford, as the direct revenue derivable from the property, but above all, on account of the salubrious and fertilizing effects which forests bestow on the surrounding country, thus favouring the progress of agriculture, and the general development of national wealth. It is only under such prosperous conditions, it may be remarked, that frechold lands can well afford to contribute towards the public expenditure, and thus will spring up, (i.e., by the conservation of forests,) other sources of state revenue. Again, the great mass of the ever-growing forest, notwith- standing the annual thinning out of it, is also acting as a capital devoted to insure the welfare of agriculture, maintaining thereby the security of the public revenues as well as that of private property. The material importance of these indirect advantages, as resulting from the proper management of forests, especially when situated in mountainous regions, may be demonstrated by the observation of events of recent occur- rence in France. In that country, as the result of injudicious alienations of State forests, and the further conversion of the forest land into pasturages, originated periodical inundations, and the ultimate ruin of agriculture in no less than four “Départements,” the rural population of which are now emigrating to America.* The loss of private property has thus been enormous, and the deficiency in the land tax revenue from the same cause, viz., the indiscriminate clearing of forests, may also be computed at millions of money.t To the collateral advantages just alluded to may be ascribed the difference in character and productive value of forests, as State or freehold property respectively. For climatic purposes, the total area of the Crown forest lands in New Zealand, taken at 5,000,000 acres, would not be more than sufficient as compared with the area of the whole colony; for the probability is, that the private forests at present adding to the climatic advantages of the publie woodlands, will gradually disappear, unless the owners could be persuaded to sacrifice their own pecuniary interest to the public welfare. In France * «Etudes sur l'Aménagement des Foréts," p. 489, par. L. Tassy, Conservateur des Foréts. Rothschild, publisher, Paris. The land tax revenue in France amounts to about £24,000,000, e Lxcoy.— The Forest Question in New Zealand. 9 and in Germany the primitive woodland areas, though much reduced, still represent in both countries a surface equal to about 24 per cent. of the total area of the country, but notwithstanding this the people there are complaining of climatic disturbances as the result of the clearing of the woodlands. . IV.— REVENUE DERIVABLE FROM STATE Forests. This most interesting part of the whole question has, it seems, been altogether misunderstood in this colony. Semi-official statements relating to the forest revenue in Germany, had the effect of representing the amount of the said revenue as not being above a few shillings per acre, from which a large amount of expenditure had to be deducted. Upon the admitted value of that source of information, it was resolved, in the House of Repre- sentatives, a few years ago, that, * judging from the results attained in Germany, the conservation or regeneration of the indigenous forests in this colony would not pay.” + * * x In the said statements the forest revenue, arising from the annual acreage of fellings, has been ascribed to the whole forest area, through an erroneous analogy between the productive value of high timber State forests and those of freehold property, but the dissimilarity in the respective conditions pertaining to each kind of property does not admit of comparison; besides which, the annual acreage being calculated on only a portion of the whole arboreal stock, it cannot be taken as the revenue or produce of the whole forest area. However, the essential point to be observed is the actual result or total amount of revenue derivable from State forests, when managed under such principles as are generally adopted in Europe. The item of the amount of expenditure involved in the management of those forests also requires consideration. All State forests in Europe have been, and many are still, encumbered with forest rights and servitudes of feudal origin, the commutation of which, necessitates expenses generally included in the expenditure of the Forest Department; which, with other causes of expense, such as the preservation of game, the collection of the forest revenue, etc., etc., are in Germany also included in the departmental expenditure. In France, the Forest Department has nothing to do with the preservation of game, nor with financial mat- ters; besides which all forest rights and servitudes have been redeemed, and the departmental expenditure is thus confined to the salaries of the staff and forest guards, and does not exceed five per cent. of the revenue ; whilst in Germany, owing to causes just stated, the average forest expenditure in the German States hereafter named is above 30 per cent. de the other Band, as may be observed in the following tables, the gross ret th of the standing timber have hitherto been less in France than in Germany, the 10 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. cause for such a difference being mainly that a systematic treatment of State forests had been adopted in Germany long before it was introduced into te and that the revolution or age of maturity of forest trees having been fixed so high as 100 to 200 years, according to species, climate, soil, ete., forests in Germany yield at the present time a larger number of trees, arrived at maturity and full dimensions, than those of France, thereby affording larger money returns. V.—Revenve or State Forests mw Europe. Return, showing: Column 1, the total area of State forests in each State; column 2, the annual acreage devoted to the fellings, as the com- puted total surface of the separate lots of ground where trees have been felled* ; column 8, State income per sales of the standing timber, as the exhaustive product per column 2; column 4, income per acre, per column 2; column 5, amount of the departmental expenditure under actual circum- stances special to each State; column 6, percentage of the expenditure on the revenue :— 1 2 3 4 5 6 NAME ta Income Amount Per oF Annual Income, | per Acre, of centage Area. Acreage, per per Expendi- oP- STATE. column 2. | column 2. ture Expendi- ture. Acres. Acres, £ £ b. £ Per cent. Bavaria .. sw | 0,000, 24,000 | 1,261,279 | 52 11 494,987 89 d 0 Hanover.. ..| 591000| 4,728 | 408200| 86 6 0 Saxony .. .. | 8,94,000| 3,152 | 350,000 |114- 6 O| 101,000| 29 Prussia .. .. | 6,216,500 | 49,732 | 2,100,000| 42 4 0 France .. .. | 2,500,000 | 20,000 | 1,400,000} 70 -© 0 Remarxs.—Columns 1, 3, 5, are taken from Captain Campbell-Walker’s reports on the forests of the German States, and for France the information is taken from the official returns, including ten consecutive years, up to 1870. For all of the above State forests, the average period of the revolution is taken as 125 years. As a rule, the upset prices at the auction sales are calculated to allow one-third of the market value of the forest product as the share of the State. In Europe, as the demand for forest produce exceeds the supply derivable from State forests, the greatest care is taken to ascertain the capability of those forests and so to allow about equal annual returns permanently. * The working of high timber forests by thinnings, being intended to secure the natural regeneration of the forest, prevents at the same time the existence of large open spaces or blanks in the interior of the forest, which would prove fatal to the surrounding standing timber Lecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 11 The capability in high timber forests is determined by estimating the cubic volume of the ligneous material of the whole area, then assigning it in calculated quantities to sections of the forest, which are worked in rotation. The amount of the annual fellings in those forests does not, as a rule, exceed one per cent. of the timber contained in the whole forest. Such a percentage, however, represents a money value considerably above that derivable from any other land cultivation for the same acreage; and should the amount be considered as the revenue of the whole forest, it would then show a revenue about equal to that generally expected from arable lands, after deducting from the latter the cost or value of labour and other agricultural expenses. By subjecting our indigenous forests to such a systematic treatment as may be actually practicable, the State revenue derivable from them should, in due course of time, become superior to that afforded by State forests in Europe, especially on account of the high value of the timber we could export. VI.—SrarEMENT SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE REVENUE AVAILABLE Two YEARS AFTER Formation or THE FOREST DEPARTMENT. 1 9 8 4 ! 5 6 7 8 9 (IN 1881.) (IN 1881.) 881.) IN 1881.) IN 1881. IN 1881 Area | Average Market yang of the i i ; ; ; A t Ave Total a 9, 9,000 & ie icis rf i f ^ R ts b moun rage o cally By mer cial feet o eceipts STATE INCOME, Bp unt Total Area of Wxhaustive Annual | required to -class timber, annual ie ae f the the e demand, rash, allow the aN eiim £1 per100 £90} the standing £ Tepartmantal valuable including e required to| Annual » 12,000 feet of second- timber and wood, BY. Annual sales 1,190,500 | Expenditure, Forests in the Home Forests, supply Acreage, ce nag oe eo for a quantity Export duty, Consumption | per 1 acre, the the period ge ing, equal to as Seana permanent e and demand, 0: e ud to 21. 000 TUUM for a perio percentage Government. Dispone as per revolution superficial Big fee of 3 years on the Annum, column 2, |taken on an raging 10s, per or per 2v acre (up at end of Income average of per 100 Ps .. £60 yu a nn a 1884), per an- to be 100 years. |——— : quantity. num, say .. 900,500| 3 per cent. Taken as Taken as Taken as 21,000 Superficial feet. Acres. Gs PPM Acres, Acres. 5,000,000 | 500,000,000 21,000 23,810 | 2,881,000 £150 £50 £1,500,000 £45,000 B superficial feet per annum, from 1881 to ps end of 1884, Altogether, the hited papie nt of the demand may be mu Column 3: No accurate information o the subject can be had before the Forest service n organized. How na the him sa is not, at present, d minerii] Pane for sut the Kies stated yield per acre be above the mark, it will b o possible to go afield on marking operations for the urpose of meeting the amou d the demand, and should the stated average ie prove to be under the bal 4 so much the better will it en ia the nterest ha re State. Saporitésiia for the purpose of ascertaining the average yield of our indigenous forests will have to be made in eac C is the basis on which must rest the whole system. The 2D n yield per acre being divided by A (anome: of the CASH ` tho quotient « will site the bes of acres required to supply the demand ; then by multiplying ‘the annual acreage 0, as the pita sie admitted age above which, trees will be felled, the area per column 5 is obtained. The s surplus quantity ni the area per colum end ys jov] requirements Columns 6 and 7: The quotations apply to the year 1881. No,exaggeration has been found in them by competent persons, to the consideration of whom they have been su Columns 8 and 9: The wane of the departmental expenditure and that of the exports is further considered, eI *$.092]]2981]A[— $0229 8UD.4 T, Lecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 18 VII.—MawacEMENT or Stare Forusts IN New ZEALAND ACTUALLY PRACTICABLE, The methods generally adopted in Europe for the purpose of determining the proportion of the annual fellings which forests can afford permanently, involve lengthy and complex operations, having to be performed by a special staff of trained forest officers. For that reason, among others, those methods are not at present wholly applicable to the colony. Meanwhile, and until the department be fully organized, a system of forest conservation not particularly requiring high technical attainments on the part of foresters on executive service, may be carried out with benefit. The fact that the supply derivable from our State forests, even under technical rules, is for the present in excess of the demand, will allow, generally, that the extent of the annual fellings may be determined by the quantity in actual demand. ‘Therefore, the approximate quantity of the demand being given, the forest officers will have to perform the following operations :— (1.) To select and mark, on sections to be worked, trees to be reserved as may be required for the purpose of securing the natural regeneration of the forest. (2.) To brand with a different mark all the standing timber intended for sale, calculating at the same time the cubic volume of that product, and proceeding thus ‘so far as necessary to provide the requisite quantity. (8.) To estimate the market value of the produce to be sold, upon which valuation upset prices will be determined. Official advertise- ments of the auction sales specify the number, species, approximate yield in cubic feet, and locality of the trees to be sold, also the special conditions of the sale, but the money valuation is not made known to the public. The foresters will then have to verify, supervise, and enforce the execution - of the by-laws and special conditions of the sales. It is not within the scope of this paper to enter into further details on forest operations, the purport of those just mentioned being to show that no extraordinary qualifications are required for foresters on executive service, and that for practical purposes a sufficiently efficient staff may be at once formed here, while forest schools would gradually fill up any deficiencies in the service. The importance of the whole matter does not allow of half measures, and the following tables, being the explanation of the previously stated amount of the departmental expenditure, are intended to show the require- ments of the forest service at the beginning :— 14 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION. TOTAL SALARIES. 1 Director-General .. be EN ks s e oe 600 3 Administrators, acting as general inspectors .. us oe 1,200 1,025 5,625 Inspectors 11,800 Rangers Clerks we ee ie «s "M ee EXECUTIVE SERVICE. Total Area INSPECTORS. RANGERS, FOREST GUARDS. 24,750 Guards to be 25 Inspectors. 100 Rangers. 450 Guards. divided into £45.000 zm Cireumsceription.| Three or four tele £55 (ave- Ranges, Four ranges. classes ; sala- rage); house, Three classes; riesaveraging| garden d ADAE M ave- £118. firewood pro- or Fores g £225. | Range extend-| vided for; civil || Establishments. ingoverabout| pensi ( Aerei: 23,810 acres. ther mania Say £10,000 2,881,000 Forest guards have to do special work on survey and demarcation operations, and likewise on selection and marking operations ; they make forest roads and plantations; and besides their work of general supervision they may be called for special police or military service. In the above stated total number, 400 guards are intended for permanent residence and 50 as a flying brigade. In reference to the item of civil pensions to be allowed to forest guards, it is necessary to explain that the suggestion as to its meaning and applica- tion is not in opposition to the principle on which civil pensions were abolished here. The institution, as it was constituted, involved the State in heavy liabilities without any actual compensation for the same, and also conferred privileges on a certain class of the people. Civil pensions in almost all countries are constituted under the principle that the Government servants have to pay for the pension, by a percentage of say, five per cent. being deducted from the nominal salaries. Experience in some countries has proved that such a percentage allows considerable profit to the State, owing to various causes of forfeiture, such as premature death, dismissal, and voluntary resignation of functions; further, the reduction of the nominal salary may also be considered as a guarantee for the good of the service, the probability being that those who have paid for the pension will not risk their future means of subsistence, through neglect of their official duties. The salaries of the forest guards being taken as from £50 to £60 per annum with house or barracks, firewood, garden, and paddock, will allow Lecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 15 of a living equal at the least to that of any other of the working classes. Still, with such earnings, it may be very hard for many of those people to save enough for the bread of old age. Forest guards, as the guardians of public property, must feel independent in the execution of their functions, and that independence would naturally arise from the fact that the fulfilment of their duty on all occasions will be the guarantee of their means of sub- sistence for life. For the purpose of meeting the amount of expenditure required for the formation of the Forest Department, also for the good of the service and that of those it may concern, the following outlines of a scheme are submitted :— Ist. Creation of a colonial pension fund, or deferred life annuities, to be constituted under such principles :— (1.) That the amount of the pension should not exceed £60. (2.) That the amount of the monthly instalments towards the pension should be calculated to the effect that neither loss nor profit would accrue to the State. (3.) That the subscription to a pension of £60 should be compulsory for all Government servants receiving a salary under £100 per annum, but to be free, up to or under the said amount, to the working classes of the community. (4.) That the right to the pension should be acquired by 25 years of payment of the subscription, and the pensioner not being under 55 years of age. 3 Cases of forfeiture : Failing to pay the monthly instalments, premature death, judicial condemnations in criminal cases, dismissal from the Govern- ment service for non-fulfilment of duty, etc. 2nd. The creation of a civil pension fund applying to all Government servants receiving a salary of or above £100 per annum.—The subscriptions to be compulsory, five per cent. reduction on the salary, causes of forfeiture as above, adding the case of voluntary resignation of functions, amount of the pension half that of the salary, reversion of half the pension to the widow of the pensioner, 90 years of service and 60 years of age giving right to the pension. The enactment of such institutions would create means more than sufficient to meet the expenditure of the forest department. As regards a systematic treatment of our indigenous forests, some technical points of importance might be reseryed without prejudice until the service had attained sufficient experience to decide upon such questions, as for instance that of determining the age of maturity of the various species of trees. Meanwhile an average age of 100 years may be fixed, so that no valuable timber under that age should be felled. On this subject it may be 16 Transactions:— Miscellaneous. remarked that the financial interest of States is not governed by the same principles as those of private individuals. Private individuals may derive interest or profit from the investment of capital, which as a rule States do not. Thus, private individuals are able to find their own pecuniary interest by selling trees on their estate as soon as they attain marketable dimensions even before maturity, because the cash realized by the sale is expected to increase, through interest or profit, to such an amount as to be far above the value of the trees at the time of their maturity. States, as a rule, have no capital to invest at interest or otherwise; their receipts go to pay their expenditure, and so far as the revenue is derivable from State forests the larger amount of money the standing timber will reach at the auction sales the better it will be for the public purse. The fact that a full-grown tree is worth more money than one of less dimensions, need not be mentioned (particularly old trees of high value for the manufacture of furniture, etc). Therefore, whilst the State is in possession of a stock of old trees more than sufficient to supply the demand, the present as well as the future interest of the Treasury will be found in the application of the rule, that trees should not be felled before full maturity. ‘‘ Arbores magne diù crescunt," VIII.—Economic AND COMMERCIAL VALUES or New ZEALAND TIMBERS. Experiments for ascertaining the intrinsic value of New Zealand timbers were most carefully and skilfully made eighteen years ago, in Dunedin, under the direction of the late Mr. Balfour, C.E.; also, as a means for : comparison, tables showing the values of.European timbers, experimented on by Mr. Barlow, were prepared by the same talented engineer. Preparatory to the consideration of the value of New Zealand timbers in European markets, the following statements, abstracted from Mr. Balfour's reports, are aubmitted, and will render it unnecessary to state the results of personal investigations, leading, as they do, to the same opinion as expressed by the late Mr. Balfour, viz., ** That the New Zealand woods compared very fairly with those we have been accustomed to con- sider as standards, the absolute strength of very many being above that of the British oak.” Lecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 17 Comparative TABLES OF THE InTRINSIC VALUES OF EUROPEAN AND NEW ZEALAND TIMBERS EUROPEAN TIMBERS. Strength or Strain the S Weight, NAME. Miro Aw Pens Elasticity. per cubic foot. . Remarks, acture Ibs. Ibs. i 1 4 General mean of Oak (Great Britain ).. | 128-55 127-01 55:96 { E » 2 178:66 111-03 46:87 Special case. Beach 4 129-66 195:83 43:37 Ash NE 69-2 80:07 46:195 Elm ^ E 87:99 82-22 34:21 Memel Deal .. xs 144.25 116 36°77 Riga Fir ox 89-96 10771 46:46 NEW ZEALAND TIMBERS. Strength or Strain the cem Weight, NAME. Meer I Elasticity. per cubic foot. Fracture. d lbs. Ibs. Black Maire Olea apetala 3142 273 72°29 itoki Alectry elsum 248 229 57°10 Black Mapau Myrsine australis 243 215-2 60-14 Manuka Leptospermum ericoides 239 239 59 Kowai Sophora tetraptera 207:5 198:5 55-11 a Nesodaphne tawa 224 204-5 49-85 Towai (Black Birch, Dus Fagus fusca 232 214-05 44°42 Towai (Black Birch, W gion) ,, 199 {209.3 50-96 Miro Pod spicata 197-2 230 49- Rata Metrosideros robusta 217 214-02 60-10 Matai Podocarpus ferruginea 190 156-22 42°74 i Eugenia maire 179:7 177:2 49:24 White Mapeui Carpodetus serratus 177°6 166-80 51:24 Kauri Dammara australis 180:96 ^ 194-41 38:96 riis petes excelsa 161 199-29 48-92 (W menziesii 158:2 s : a Rimu on Da cone essinum 168 174- » Ba) pide pig 163 136-7 37-63 = 108 36-28 » (Canter bee 2 m 66 89-16 47-34 Totars (Hawke ae arene ed totara 148 113-99 34-13 ne ellington 140 163-8 33:83 ^ (Canterbury) - 121 94-74 36°16 i carpus den 125 : 200-7 35:03 White Pine P seess Aaterra 136 155 31°55 Several species of New Zealand timbers were not tested at the Dunedin experiments, such as puriri and manuao, or Westland pine, which are the strongest and most durable timbers in the colony. Irrespective of the economic values just stated, many descriptions of New Zealand indigenous trees possess remarkable beauty in grain, mark- 2 18 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. ings, and varied tints, which would prove of high commercial value in Europe. For the purpose of exportation to Europe, New Zealand timbers may be divided into three classes :— The first class to include timbers well adapted for the manufacture of furniture, cabinet work, etc., such as rewarewa, which, by lapse of time, assumes an extreme beauty, and the appearance of tortoise-shell. Then maire comes in for a more serious style of furniture, superior in beauty to old oak. Next we have all the varieties of waved and mottled kauri, rimu, totara, etc., all of exquisite beauty, far exceeding that of any wood known in Europe. The second class to include timbers well adapted for ornamental works, where the adequate strength of the wood is required, such as inlaid floor- ings, when they are intended for ornamentation, panels, ete., for which rimu is prominently a suitable timber. The third class to include timbers intended to supply the place of oak in its special uses, the scarcity and high commercial value of that timber being much felt in all European markets at the present time. The cause of the diminishing supply of oak and other hardwoods in Europe may be partly ascribed to the extension of railways, but principally to the progressive ex- haustion of the product in countries where forest conservation is not carried out. Thus, from scarcity of those timbers, and high prices for the same, originated the introduction of iron ship-building, and also, so far as prac- ticable, the more general adaptation of light woods to various building pur- poses. Oak however, cannot be replaced by iron or light wood in its essential uses; and in the many descriptions of New Zealand strong timbers will be found the requisite qualities to supply the place of that standard timber in Europe, in each of its special uses. ; The prineipal outlets for the exchange of our forest produce should be England and France. England is anxiously looking to her colonies for the supply of her enormous eonsumption of timber and wood, which, according to a recent statement taken from The Economist, represents a yearly value of £170,000,000. Canada contributes, for a value of about £5,000,000 per annum, towards these excessive requirements.* But forests in the Dominion are given up to waste and devastation, no effectual steps being taken to prevent their ultimate destruction, and hardwood is fast disappearing in all its provinces. * During five years ending 1876, Canada exported to the United Kingdom— Timber and wood, to a total value of .. .. 24,033,926 Corn and grain em m Ki res . . 16,596, (Colonial Timbers, Colonial Office, England.) Lzcoy.— The Forest Question in New Zealand. 19 An analysis of returns relating to colonial timber, issued by the English Colonial Office, and presented to both Houses of Parliament, August, 1878, affords important information. In the prefatory observations of the official document it is stated that * The returns exhibit, in a striking manner, the urgent need for some prompt and comprehensive action to stay the influences at work to destroy the indigenous forests which constitute, in many instances, the principal natural riches of the colonies.—Looking * * * above all, to the intrinsic importance of the question itself, this may be regarded as a matter of Imperial concern, calling for well-considered action on the part of the Government," In the chapter devoted to New Zealand, the provisions of the State Forests Act of 1874 are recited, and the following remarks occur :—** As a practical and comprehensive experiment in the direction of forest conservancy, the results will be looked forward to with interest." * * * Besides the supply derivable from her dependencies, England imports immense quantities of timber from the north of Europe. But there, also, forests are becoming exhausted, and protective duties on the Baltie timbers are imminent. The demand for staves and hardwood intended for various purposes, is considerable in the English markets, and should New Zealand timbers be better known there, they would soon be in demand to any amount that could be supplied. The same remarks apply to those of our woods which are so well adapted for the mannfacture of furniture, cabinet work, etc. However, for ordinary house-building purposes New Zealand timbers could not compete in price with the lighter woods generally used in England. In France, the use of hardwoods for house-building purposes is more general than in England, and it may be there a matter of necessity, to which, in some cases, ornamentation is added. Houses in Paris being five stories high (each house affording habitation to ten families), have to be constructed with the strongest materials. Oak, as a rule, is used in the construction of stairs, inlaid floorings, doors, and panels, the work being finished off by the application of a special encaustic, which produces a varnish-like appearance. Thus, in France, oak is found to be both useful and ornamental; and floorings of polished oak are almost universal, carpets being but seldom used, and then only in winter. Another characteristic of French custom is extreme luxury in furniture, all classes of the people in towns seeking to possess themselves of the best furniture that their means wil admit of. It may therefore be confidently asserted that New Zealand timbers, for all purposes indicated in the above classification, will find a ready market in France. In addition to the annual product of her 23,000,000 acres of forests (including State, communal, and private forests, all of which are subjected 20 Transactions. Miscellaneous. to the prohibitions against clearing), France has annually to import hard- woods to the value of £8,000,000, mostly intended for the navy, wine- cask staves, and furniture. The merchant navy has not, as yet, any iron ships. : Prices for oak, in the Paris market, were quoted by the Revue des Eaux et Foréts, of the 5th October, 1878; as follows :— In log.—Logs of 2 mètres in circumference or above, 160 francs= £6 8s. Od. per cubic métre=1 cubic yard+10 per cent.; the logs to be measured at the quarter girth if not squared. Logs from 1 to 2 métres in circumference—80 francs= £3 4s. Od. Planks.—Lots of all lengths, breadths and depths, being piled, 150 francs =£6 per cubic mètre. Planks called ** Entrevour."—Breadth 10 inches, depth 1 inch, 5 franes =4s. per 1 superficial métre=10 superficial feet nearly=40s. per 100 superficial feet. All other dimensions in the breadth and depth of planks are charged proportionately to the cubic volume of the ** Entrevour." Oak planks are to be free from sap-wood. The cost of freight from New Zealand to England or France, may be computed at about 6s. per 100 superficial feet, on a regular trade being established. The above quotations are those of the forest contractor for newly-cut wood, the timber merchant regulating the price of his goods according to the length of time he has kept them seasoning. It is not uncommon in France to see oak splitting and warping in its various uses, as may be par- ticularly observed at the fourth and fifth floors of houses where a com- paratively low rent necessitates the use of cheap wood. Also, in the first and second floors of the same houses, oak from the same forest may be seen perfectly sound, the difference arising from the more perfect seasoning. The above given quotations for oak in the Paris market, relate to the variety of the species which is the most abundant in the forests of France, viz., the ‘ Quercus cerris,” which is not so strong a timber as the ** Quercus pedunculata,” or British oak. Therefore, Mr. Balfour's tables, taken as a means for comparison between New Zealand and England's indigenous timbers, may certainly also stand good in reference to the standard timber of France. Prices for oak and other hardwoods in England are about the same as, if not higher than, they are in the Paris market. It may also be a matter of interest to observe that the most abundant species of New Zealand timbers are precisely those which will best suit the French markets. Such are rimu, birch, tawa, totara, ete. ; not that rimu, for instance, could be expected to supply the place of oak in all its various uses but, that, for purposes such as those mentioned in the second section Lecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 21 of the above classification, this timber, it may be confidently asserted, would attain a commercial value above that of oak. Birch, tawa, etc., could also advantageously replace oak in many of its special and essential uses on the same level as to prices. The market value of New Zealand timbers in the colony, as compared with that which they should reach in the European markets, can only be given as the result of personal observation, inquiries, ete. Home PRICEs. PRICES ABROAD. Per 100 superficial Per 100 mipearibiat eet, * feet. 1st class timbers, from .. 12s. to 21s. | 1st class timbers, from .. £3 10s. to £8 Os. tnd | u 5 és eek eee I4. SAE ves i WTE o DORs. . 48. LOR Sn 5. " e ee eh Rog. IML oe A n s. &3 Os. ,, £9 10s. The prompt success of our timber export trade in Europe will mainly depend on proper discrimination as to the individual adaptability of the wood, and when its reputation is well established, there would be no fear of any diminution of the demand for it, nor of unsuccessful competition with identical timbers from any other parts of the world. Although the merits of the Dunedin experiments cannot be contested, they may not be found of much advantage for the purpose of establishing abroad the reputation of New Zealand timbers. Experiments, to have the effect of comparing the intrinsie value of our timbers with that of any standard wood abroad, should be made in the country where a good market is expected to be found. The diffieulty to be encountered abroad for the sale of our forest produce will be this: The timber merchant may well admit the superior value of our timbers, and at the same time refrain from giving orders for it, on the ground that he has his own stock to dispose of; that he has no demand for rimu or puriri, and that he cannot undertake to make a reputation, and thus create a demand, for unknown timbers. The same objections will be repeated at every wholesale house where the timber may be offered for sale. Another side of the question is that, in order to secure its full success, the exportation of New Zealand timber should be undertaken on a large scale. In France, a means may be found for at once establishing, on an indis- putable ground, the reputation of New Zealand timbers. The ** Conservatoire des Arts et Metiérs," at Paris, is a public institution of great European renown. Science, in its application to the industrial arts and agriculture, is there demonstrated by eminent professors. The establishment possesses &n ample supply of apparatus and machinery of all kinds, water and steam power, etc., intended for the purpose of testing the merits or properties of any new process or natural product having a character of general interest, 22 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. The monthly Gazette of the institution affords publicity to the experiments, and these reports have a considerable importance (scientifie and commercial) as having the sanction of unquestionable authority. Here the intervention of the Government of the colony may be required; for we do not know how far the request of private individuals, for such a purpose, might be liable to objection. But, if presented by the Government, the request, bearing a character of general interest, would be granted at once. The experiments at the ** Conservatoire " having thus been promoted through Government action, all surrounding details should be carefully attended to by the Government agent, or, as it may be, by the representative of any intended colonial company, who would have the official reports of the experiments inserted in the leading journals, as well as in the press specially devoted to the timber trade, taking such an opportunity for making special mention of our ornamental woods. Then the time would come for obtain- ing large orders from Governments, railway companies, etc., likewise for taking orders from well-known houses for our ornamental and furniture woods, and the effect of the experiments would reflect favourably on all classes of New Zealand timbers, Some difficulties, however, more apparent than real, may also be encountered here. There is an insuperable connection between the forest question itself and the timber exports. Thus, by introducing a systematic management of the public forests, the Government would show a due appreciation of the value of that portion of the natural riches of the colony, thereby stimulating private enterprise as regards the exportation of our timbers to Europe, also helping in the matter so far as Government action may go. Considered solely from a financial point of view, the forest question in New Zealand will show to any competent person giving attention to it, that within a period of, say ten or fifteen years hence, a permanent State revenue, to the amount of from £8,000,000 to £4,000,000, should be derivable from the State forests, and that meanwhile capital, to about the same amount, would come yearly from abroad, as money derived from the timber exports, The magnitude of the interests involved in the forest question in this colony comprehends many important points which will have to be elucidated by official investigation in order to enlist public confidence, which will lead to practical results. So far as the conservation of the forests is concerned, the subject has already been treated in the New Zealand Parliament with a remarkable display of talent and patriotism. | In 1868, the Parliamentary debates assumed a character of the highest interest. The motion of Mr. Potts, relative to the conservation of the forests of the colony, received its full development on the part of the pro- Lecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 28 moter himself, and was supported by distinguished members of the House. The information and suggestions contributed on the occasion by the speeches of Messrs, Travers, Stafford, O’Neill, and others, still bear the same force of argument at the present time. In 1870, the forest question sprang up in the Select Committee on Colonial Industries. Men of science were called in and interrogated. In his reply to Mr. O'Neill, Dr. Hector, in a few words, threw a vivid light on the whole subject. He said :— * The rapid destruction of the native forests I consider to be most wasteful, and as having the effect of rapidly reducing the natural resources ofthe country. It is not at all necessary that the forest should be com- pletely removed in the way that it usually is, either for the purpose of agricultural settlement, or the obtaining of timber for mills, firewood, or fencing. The thinnings of the forest would be ample in most cases to supply all the latter wants. By carelessly opening up tracts of forest, and especially by the firing of dead forests, the young growth of trees which comes up to supply the place of the trees that are removed is wholly arrested, and in a short time the air and sun dry up the surface soil of good quality, which — iib dapes bush-land, and it is washed away by the rains." * . In 1873, Mr. O'Neill moved *: oae in the opinion of this House, it is expedient that proper steps be taken for the conservation of the forests throughout the colony, with which view it is resolved that a respectful address be transmitted to his Excellency the Governor, requesting that he may be pleased to appoint a Royal Commission to inquire into and report upon the State forests and the best means for securing their conservation." Sir D. Maclean said: ‘‘ This subject appeared to have been well con- sidered by the honourable member * * * but all the Government could promise was to look into the matter during the recess, with the view of introducing a bill next session." In 1874 the State Forests Act was passed, but its provisions as to the fund intended for the administration of the State forests have since been rescinded. Sinee then the forest agitation has subsided, but the extermination of forests by fire and axe has not ceased. Meanwhile the Public Works policy has been developed, extensive lines of railways have already been completed, others are in progress of construction, many more will be asked for, and under all circumstances the Colonial Treasurer will be entitled to look to the proper management of the State forests as an important and hitherto untouched source of revenue. 24 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Arr. IL—Jnfluence of Forests on Climate and Rainfall. By Frepericx B. Prprercorne, Civil Engineer. [Read before the Hawke’s Bay Philosophical Institute, 14th July, 1879.] No fact is better authenticated than that of the beneficial influence exerted by the presence of forests on the climate and rainfall of a country, and, on the other hand, of the injurious effects on both that is brought about by the destruction of forests, or by their absence. In this way their destruction has often become a real calamity to a country, and has proved to be one of those errors which nothing can excuse, and which nothing but a resort to years of tree-planting, in order to replace the forests destroyed, can remedy. That this is not an exaggerated view to take of the subject, is shown when we know the evil effects produced in many countries by the denudation of their forests —one striking instance of which is to be found in Spain, the central regions of which, comprising the Castiles, part of Leon, Estremadura, and La Mancha, possess at present an execrable climate, although, in the times of the Roman oceupation of Spain, these distriets were noted for the fertility of their soil and for the amenity of their climate, so that the words, ** Nihil otiosum, nihil sterile in Hispania,” passed into a proverb. But, at present, as we are told by Sir A. Ford, “ The denuded table-lands are exposed to the fierce suns of the summer and to the fiercer snows and winds of winter, while the bulk of the peninsula offers a pieture of neglect and desolation, moral and physieal, which it is painful to contemplate. Extensive steppes and plains are burnt up by the sun in summer, and swept by the iey winds in winter, while rain is so rare in the table-lands that the annual fall does not exceed nine inches, and there are districts upon which no shower descends for eight or nine months together. The face of the earth is tanned tawny, and baked into a veritable * Terra-cotta,’ and everything seems dead and burnt, as on a funeral pile.” And yet, under the dominion of the Moors, the country blossomed like a rose, while now Spain is one of the droughtiest and poorest countries in Europe, and the ignorance and prejudiees of the peasantry have completed the devastation of her forests which her Catholic monarchs commenced. Fortunately, however, for Spain, she now possesses some enlightened men who, having been able to trace the causes of the evil up to their true source, are setting to work to remedy it, and are impressing upon the Spanish Government the imperative necessity of replanting the mountain ranges as the only efficient method of combatting the drought and its attendant dis- asters. They show clearly that the demolition of the forests has operated most disastrously both upon the soil and climate; that springs and streams have dried up; that rain has ceased to fall at one period of the year when it is most wanted, and descends with great violence at other times. This PEPPERVORNE.—On the Influence of Forests on Climate and Rainfall. 25 causes the surface-soil to be washed off the hills (which have been denuded of their timber) and carried into the valleys, from whence it is swept away by calamitous inundations into the sea. The preservation of the forests of a country is, therefore, one of the first duties of an enlightened Government; for, as Professor Macarel, a French writer of some note, observes: ‘‘ All the wants of life are closely related to their conservation : agriculture, architecture, and almost all the industries, seek therein their aliment and resources, which nothing can replace. Necessary as are the forests to the individual, they are not less so to the State; their existence is, of itself, of incaleulable benefit to the countries that possess them, as well in the protection and feeding of the springs and rivers, as in their prevention against the washing away of the soil upon mountains, and in the beneficial and healthy influence which they exert upon the atmosphere. Large forests deaden and break the force of heavy winds that beat out the seeds and injure the growth of plants; they form reservoirs of moisture; they shelter the soil of the fields and upon hill- sides, where the rain-water, checked in its descent by the thousand obstacles they present by their roots and by the trunks of trees, has time to filter into the soil, and only finds its way by slow degrees to the rivers. They regu- late, in a certain degree, the flow of the waters and the hygrometrical con- dition of the atmosphere, and their destruction accordingly increases the duration of droughts and gives rise to the injuries of inundations." The truth of these observations admits of no doubt, and instances may be multiplied to prove their accuracy. Thus, the island of Cyprus was, in ancient times, famed for its fertility when its hills were covered with timber; but of late years, and since the denudation of her forests, the bare and thirsty soil seems, as it were, to repel the rain-bearing clouds, and the island has become the prey of periodic drought and disease. During the three consecutive years from 1859 to 1861, no rain fell at Cyprus, and the inhabitants migrated en masse to the adjacent shores of Syria. Malaria appears to have become chronic in the island; but since its recent occupation by the British, an extensive system of tree-planting has been commenced under the auspices of Sir Garnet Wolseley, who, in a recent letter to the First Lord of the Admiralty, writes: **I am now planting 20,000 Eucalyptus trees of one and two years' growth, and even supposing that one-half of these die, I shall have made a good start towards replenishing the island with timber.” * * All who have made themselves aequainted with the French colonization of Algeria, must admire the publie spirit displayed during the last twenty years in respect to the ** reboisement," or re-timbering of the country, chiefly with the Eucalyptus globulus and other varieties of this tree—a measure which has been found to be equally effective both on sanitary and economie grounds. 26 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Again, the Island of St. Helena offers a striking example of the effects of forest denudation upon its climate and rainfall. When it was first discovered in 1502, the island was covered with timber, which in many instances came down to the water's edge, and innumerable rivulets height- ened the verdure of the land. But, shortly after its colonization, the inhabitants went recklessly to work to destroy the trees, and this was followed by a succession of severe and destructive drougnts; so that, all through the 18th eentury, there were almost periodical visitations of these scourges, occasioning ruinous losses of cattle and crops. The East India Company, however, having adopted energetic measures for the replanting of the island with the cluster pine and other hardy forest trees, the result has been that the annual rainfall has become equal to that of England, and that it is spread almost evenly over the year, while droughts are altogether unknown. Similar effects have been recorded with respect to the Island of Mauritius, in which a steady diminution of the rainfall has taken place since the destruc- tion of no less than 70,000 acres of forests, or about one-sixth of the entire area of the island. This work of destruction was accomplished in the ten years from 1852 to 1862, with the following results as reported by Mr. Meldrum, the Director of the Observatory at that island :—'* In no former year of the period of fourteen years did such floods occur as in 1861 and 1866, or such severe droughts as in 1865 and 1866. Nor is this all ; for the Mauritius, which was formerly a ‘sanatorium’ for British officers invalided in India, is subject to deadly epidemics, owing to the lowering of some lakes and the complete desiccation of others. Malaria has thus been generated, and cholera and fevers have followed. Latterly, however, an extensive system of tree-planting has been commenced, with the best results On this subject also, Dr. Hooker, in a letter to Lord Kimberley, who was at that time Secretary of State for the Colonies, wrote as follows :— ‘ The mischief already done in Mauritius and various West Indian islands is so widely spread (being in some, indeed, irreparable), and the feeling of the colonists against any interference on the part of the Government is apt to be so determined, that I venture to press upon your lordship my own opinion as to the urgency of active steps being taken in the case of an island so beautiful, and at present so fertile, as Ceylon. I have lately received an account of the deterioration of the climate of some of the Leeward Islands, which affords a melancholy confirmation of what I have urged above. The contrast between neighbouring islands similarly situated is most striking, while the sad change which has befallen the smaller ones is, without any doubt, to be ascribed to human agency alone. It is recorded of these, that PEpPERCORNE.—On the Influence of Forests on Climate and Rainfall. 27 in former times they were clothed with dense forests, and their oldest inhabitants remembered when the rains were abundant, and the hills and all uncultivated places were shaded by extensive groves. The removal of the trees was certainly the cause of the evil, The opening of the soil to the vertical sun rapidly dries up the moisture, and prevents the rain from sinking to the roots of plants. The rainy seasons in these climates are not continuous cloudy days, but successions of sudden showers, with the sun shining hot in the intervals. Without shade upon the surface the water is rapidly exhaled, and springs and streams diminish.” The opinion of so eminent a botanist as Dr. Hooker must be conclusive on this subject; and in the Report of the United States’ Commissioner of Agriculture for 1871, there oceurs the following passage :—‘‘In Upper Egypt, the rains which, eighty years ago, were abundant, have ceased since the Arabs cut down the trees along the valley of the Nile towards Lybia and Arabia. A contrary effect has been produced in Lower Egypt from the extensive planting of trees by the Pasha. In Alexandria and Cairo, where rain was formerly a great rarity, it has, since that period, become more frequent.” Again, speaking of the State of New York, and of the lofty mountains amongst which its principal rivers take their rise, Professor Marsh says :— “ Nature threw up those mountains, and clothed them with lofty woods, in order that they might serve as a reservoir to supply with perennial waters the thousand rivers and rills that are fed by the rains and the snows of the ‘ Adirondacks,’ and as a screen for the fertile plains of the central counties, against the chilling blasts of the north wind, which meet no other barrier in their sweep from the Arctic Pole. The climate of Northern New York even now ‘Presents greater extremes of temperature than that of Southern France. g what is called the ‘heated term,’ the weather is almost tropical, and the deaths from sunstroke, even in the city of New York, which lies at the most southerly point of the State, may be reckoned by scores, while the winters have become of late years quite Siberian in their severity." With regard to the felling of the Adirondack woods, and the effects thereof, Professor Marsh warns his countrymen that their destruction will render a wide-spread desolation inevitable, and he dwells on this point, because we are apt to think that America possesses exhaustless forests :— ** Already (he says) the rivers which rise in that region flow with diminished currents in dry seasons, and with augmented volumes of water after heavy rains. They bring down larger quantities of sediment; and the increasing obstruetions to the navigation of the Hudson, which are extending them- selves down the channel in proportion as the fields are encroaching on the 28 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. forests, give good reason for the fear of irreparable injury to the commerce of the important towns on the upper waters of that river, unless measures are taken to prevent the expansion of ‘ —— which have already been carried beyond the limits of a wise economy.” In our vast Indian Empire, the Government, until quite recently, per- mitted a wholesale destruction of the forests, but has now begun to open its eyes to the disastrous effects produced, and has appointed forest conserva- tors, whose duties are to see that the trees cut down are replaced by others, as the consequences of the reckless destruction of the Indian forests by demands for railroad and other uses, have already made themselves felt by the greater frequency of seasons of drought and famine, with all their attendant miseries ; and with such data as are accessible in late reports, it cannot be doubted that these calamities are chiefly due to the denudation of the forests. It is believed, however, that with a general scheme of forest conserva- tion, by which the annual growth might be made to balance, as near as may be, the annual consumption, these evils would be greatly mitigated, if not removed entirely. During the last half-century, great attention has been paid, both in France and Germany, to the art of ** Forestry "—an art which comprises an extensive range of knowledge of various sciences, amongst which botany, chemistry, geology, and vegetable physiology, take the first rank. The area of the French State forests is put down at 8,180,000 acres, to which may be added 5,850,000 acres belonging to ** Communes,” corporations, hospi- tals, and other publie establishments, and the whole of these forests are under the management of the French administration of Forests. In the ** Vosges" the destruction had gone so far that the humidity had diminished, while the soil had become more arid and inundations more frequent. In the Department of the ** Gard” it did not rain in 1837 for more than nine months, and the supply from wells was most seriously diminished. At ‘“ Berjiers" it was reported that the vast forest, which once sheltered that place, having been destroyed, the loss of the olive crop was the immediate consequence. Violent storms and torrents of rain certainly fell from time to time, but these did more harm than good, as the water ran off the land without penetrating into it. Such has been the result, in France, of the destruction of a great extent of her forests; but the regulations at present in force for their conservation and ‘‘ reboisement’’ are of the most stringent nature. In Prussia proper, out of 85,000,000 of “ hectares,”* 8,000,000 are classed as forests, out of which nearly 4,000,000 are private forests ; in * A “hectare” is equal to about 24 English acres. Pepprrrcorne.—On the Influence of Forests on Climate and Rainfall, 29 both cases the regulations for their management and conservation are of the most comprehensive description. In Switzerland, the question has become of such national importance that it has been proposed to modify the constitution so as to enable the Federal Government to undertake duties which have hitherto been per- formed by the several cantons. In Austria, the management of forests has recently been transferred from the Minister of Finance to a distinct department, presided over by the Minister of Agriculture. In India, the forest question is now bina regarded as one of the first importance, and is being dealt with, not by the several Presidencies, but by the General Government on behalf of the country at large. In Canada, there has been a certain amount of legislation on this sub- ject; but in Sweden and Norway the most rigorous measures have been devised to protect the forests, and there are regulations to prevent trees under a certain age and size from being cut even by private owners. Now, if in countries like France, Germany, Sweden, and Norway, whose forest lands are extensive, it has been found necessary to initiate and carry out a most careful system of forest conservation, how much more so must it be necessary in the dry and sultry climate of Australia! In the colonies of Victoria and New South Wales, the evils produced by the gradual diminution of their forests, as well as by their destruction in dry seasons by bush fires, have now become apparent, and have combined io render the climate, which is naturally dry, year by year more dry, while but little has been as yet attempted for their preservation. The consequences must inevitably be of the most serious nature, unless immediate steps are taken to conserve large tracts of the existing forests, as well as to initiate a well-devised system of tree-planting on the bare hills which have been denuded of their forests. Should this not be done, the inevitable result will be severe droughts of long duration, occurring more frequently than at present, to the great detriment of the pastoral and agricultural interests of these colonies. In South Australia, the subject has, however, received much attention of late, and proposals have been made by Mr. Goyder, the Surveyor-General of that colony, to initiate a systematic course of tree-planting on a large scale. Mr. Goyder proposes to reserve 200,000 acres of land, and to spend on it, in tree-planting and management, £14,000 during the first year, and £10,500 during each of the following eleven years; thus making a total expenditure of £180,000, when the whole of the 200,000 acres would be planted and fenced in. During the first five years there would not be any revenue, but during the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth years, the revenue 30 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. from periodical thinnings was estimated at £35,000 annually, until the end of the twenty-first year, when the colony would be in possession of 300 square miles of forest. These estimates may possibly be a little overdrawn, but the scheme appears well worthy of consideration, and it is to be borne in mind that in no case is natural forest or “bush ” so valuable, commercially speaking, as planted forest, and no one can deny the fact that tree-planting, on an extensive scale, would be a very necessary proceeding in all the Australasian colonies wherever the natural forests have been largely destroyed, to say nothing of the undoubted beneficial influence it would exert upon the climate and rainfall. Humboldt thought that dense woods gave out what he called a * frigorie," or cooling radiation, which condensed the vaporous clouds, so that there should naturally be frequent and abundant rains in their vicinity; and, on the other hand, he thought that the warm radiations which take place from level, sandy, and treeless plains, would produce little if any rainfall, and all our experience tends to show that these views are correet. The foregoing examples have been selected from a mass of facts illus- trative of the dependence, to a large extent, of the rainfall of a country upon the preservation or renewal of its forests, whether on mountain-ranges or on table-lands, or on less elevated tracts of country. And although the meteorological action of forests is but imperfectly understood at present, yet the data hitherto collected are quite sufficient to point to the conclusion that trees, being natural conductors of electricity, as has been proved by the experiments of M. Grandeau, Professor of the ** Ecole Forestriére,” in France, serve as intermediaries for the exchange of the electricities with which the earth and the atmosphere are respectively charged. It has also been said that the earthquakes which are common in Spain and Portugal, would be less frequent and less violent if the elevated regions of those countries were clothed with forests, so as to secure regular and harmless conduction of the electric fluid from the aerial to the terrestrial reservoir, and vice versa. However this may be, one thing is very certain, which is that hailstorms, which are believed to be produced by a certain specific electric action, become more frequent and destructive in districts which possess no forests ; and on this point Signor Calvi, in his ** Hints on the Importance and Cultivation of Forests," states that:—‘‘ When the chains of the Alps and the Apennines had not yet been stripped of their magnificent erown of woods, the May hail, which now desolates the fertile plains of Lombardy, was much less frequent; but, since the prostration of the forest, these tempests are laying waste even the mountain soils, whose older inhabitants scarcely knew the plague." Puprercorne.—On the Influence of Forests on Climate and Rainfall, 31 Enough has now been said to show the calamitous consequences of denuding a country of its woods and forests, and to show that writers of repute, who have made this subject their special study, are unanimous in connecting the occurrence of droughts and famines, the drying up of lakes and rivers, together with the outbreak of certain malarious epidemics, with the reckless destruction and waste of forests. We are, in Australia and New Zealand, much in the same position as the inhabitants of India in this respect, and we are only beginning to feel the effects of the wholesale destruction of our forests. In New Zealand particularly, the forest question is a vital one, and the sooner it is grappled with the better it will be for the colony, the question being one which will so greatly influence its future prosperity, together with its commercial value as a colony, its climate, and its salubrity. In a very interesting paper by Dr. Hector, showing the percentage of our forest land to the whole area of the colony, his estimate is, that between the years 1830 and 1868 the destruction of forests was as follows :— In the Province of Auckland F im i .. 58 per cent. 2 Taranaki SS se "T Trey | Boar € Wellington * 20 . re Hawke’s Bay 60 , us Nelson .. ‘ 16 » Canterb ii »5 Marlborough . > š 1 is Otago... s m es uc dE Showing that the average destruction during these thirty-eight years was about 25 per cent. During the five years from 1868 to 1878, it was esti- mated that of what remained in 1868, the following was destroyed :— In the Province of Auckland << s zs .. 27 per cent. is naki ká = ae 2 EE sere » s sa ^ c AD x i Hawke’s Bay .. sx em «da. ae A Nelson .. as ES Ped ey e Marlborough «428 = Canterbury za oe E «x U y n Westland c es 21 n Otago .. kė a a soc I. In other words, taking the whole colony, 20 per cent. of what forest remained in 1868 had been destroyed during the five years ending in 1878 ! It will be observed that in these estimates the Province of Hawke’s Bay stands pre-eminent in its ‘‘bad eminence” for destructiveness of forests, which, if it continues in the same ratio, will leave it with very little, if any, standing timber in the year 1899, or in twenty years hence. 82 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Dr. Hochstetter, in his valuable work on the geology and natural history of New Zealand, pointed out the fact that extensive districts which had formerly been covered with forests of kauri pine were, when he wrote, totally destitute of this most valuable of the forest trees, and that its exter- mination was progressing from year to year at such an alarming rate, that its final extinction was as certain as that of the natives themselves, only in a much shorter period of time. Such being the facts of the case, it is surely necessary that some steps be taken to preserve a portion of our forests, and to check the continually increasing destruction which is still being carried on; and it would appear to be not only expedient but absolutely necessary that the far-seeing views which were expressed on this subject by Sir Julius Vogel, in 1874, and which were—to create a department of ** Woods and Forests," and to enact forest laws, be carried out without delay. The most stringent measures wil now have to be resorted to for their conservation; a sum of money should be set apart annually for the purpose of planting and improving the State forests; every township in the colony should have its adjacent forest reserve; and every encouragement should be given to landowners towards the planting of trees on their farms and runs. Should this not be done, after the fashion of other and older countries, and should no steps be taken to conserve our forests, the consequences will, in all probability, be of the most disastrous nature to the ensuing generation. Art. III.— Notes on Port Nicholson and the Natives in 1839. By Mazor Cuartes Heapny, V.C. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th October, 1879.] Havine been in Port Nicholson before the arrival of the settlers, I have put together the following notes on the physical aspect of the place, and the condition of the native inhabitants at that time. In September, 1839, when I arrived here in the ‘Tory,’ with the expedition to select a fitting site for the New Zealand Company’s first settlement, no ship had been in the harbour for a considerable time, pro- bably three or four years. The place lay out of the track of whaling ships, and there was but little flax-trading to be done at it. Large, and for a time prosperous, whaling-stations existed at Port Underwood, Tory Chan- nel, and Kapiti. The tide running past the heads on into those harbours, whale-ships lay at anchor there, with their boats in readiness, and nume- Hearuy.—On Port Nicholson and the Natives in 1839. - 88 rous shore-parties watched throughout the winter months for whales that, coming inshore during the breeding season, were entangled or swept by the tide into the bays, where they could be attacked with advantage, and when killed, towed, with the aid of the flood or ebb tide, alongside the ship or under sheers of the shore establishment. At Port Nicholson heads, the tide was not so strong as to draw in the “ fish,” as they were termed, and as a consequence the place was unfrequented, and remained with its people in a more primitive condition than any of the surrounding harbours. The forest was more undisturbed. Along the eastern shore, from the mouth of the Hutt River to outside of Ward Island, the forest was uninter- rupted, and the trees overhung the water, giving shelter to great numbers of wild fowl. About Kaiwhara, Ngahauranga, and the Korokoro, the earthquakes had not then raised the coast, and caused the beach, now octupied by the railway, to appear, and there, also, the trees overhung the water, leaving only at the ebb of the tide a space sufficient for a pathway. The indigenous birds had been entirely unmolested, save when the Maori snared them in his furtive and noiseless manner. I remember, especially, the enormous number of waterfowl frequenting the shallows at the mouth of the Hutt River. Cormorants, ducks, teal, oyster-catchers, plovers, sand-pipers, curlew, and red-legged waders, were there in pairs, detachments, and masses, and so tame that it was slaughter, rather than sport, to shoot them. At the beach at the head of Evans Bay, there were, beside ordinary waterfowl, flocks of Paradise ducks (Casarca variegata). In the low fern and sandy shores of Island and Lyall Bays the indigenous quail, now disappeared, would rise almost at one’s foot with its shrill, startling whistle, while along the rocks the slate-coloured cranes (Ardea sacra), two and two, were to be seen making erratic darts after shrimps, or patiently waiting for a passing fish. The forest was then teeming with birds. Of twelve or fourteen species of small birds that were then to be seen in every wood, only the tui, the fly-catcher, and the wren, with the sand-lark, in the open, are now common, while the robin, the bell-bird, the titmouse, the thrush, the popokatea, the tiraweke, and the riroriro, are rarely seen or have entirely passed away. Of the larger birds, the kokako, or erow, the rail, pukeko, pigeon, kaka, and huia, were numerous in their respective localities or feeding-grounds. Of a night might be heard the booming, or ** drum," of the bittern ( Botau- rus peciloptilus). The weka ( Ocydromus earli), now common about the Hutt Valley, was then so scarce, that for more than three months our naturalist 8 84 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. was unable to obtain one, alive or dead, or even to see askin. I think this singular alteration in the bird’s numbers has been noticed in Southland. This bird, although not at all shy, is very pugnacious, and can defend its young from either the rat or the cat, hence, probably, its singular increase. The huia ( Heteralocha acutirostris) was then to be found in the ranges between Wainuiomata and Palliser Bay. Dr. Dieffenbach, the naturalist, was anxious to obtain some, and I accompanied him, making sketches, to the high range that overlooks Palliser Bay. The natives are very fond of the feathers of this handsome, dark, velvetty bird, with its yellow wattles and white-tipped tail, and two boys readily went with us as guides. There was no occasion to take much food into the bush in those days—the gun supplied game enough—and though the month was September, one blanket was considered sufficient bedding for the open-air bivouac. We struck in from near Lowry Bay, and reached the source of the Orongo stream before night. There was no path whatever. We shot some kakas and snared a kokako, but saw no huias. We made a good fire as night approached. The natives were awfully afraid of the Wairarapa people, against whom they had lately fought, and while we slept with our feet near the fire, they sat crouched, with our guns in their hands, listening to detect any possibly approaching footsteps, for they were on the debateable land of the two tribes. The only sound worth notieing was the beautiful melody, towards morning, of the bell-birds. Thousands of these were singing together, and, probably by some auricular delusion, the sound seemed to arrange itself into scales, like peals of bells running down octaves. As the sun rose this musie eeased altogether. From the top of the range we had a fine view of Palliser Bay and the Wairarapa Lakes. On our way homeward the natives suddenly stopped; they heard in the distance the peculiar cry of the huia. Imitating this, and adding a peculiar croak of their own, which they said was very attractive, our guides soon brought two birds—a male and female—within shooting distance. We abstained from firing for a moment, admiring the elegant movements of these birds as they leaped from tree to tree, peering inquisitively at us, and gradually coming nearer. We now fired with light charges, and brought each a bird down. Our natives were annoyed at our ''grifüinism." They had intended, by a further allure- ment of a peculiar gutteral croak, to have brought the birds so near as to capture them with a common slip-knot at the end of a stick—a process which we saw subsequently performed with entire success. As we descended the spur near the mouth of the Hutt River, a whale and its calf were tumbling about between Lowry Bay and Somes’ Island. They were *'finbacks," and of no commercial value, Hxaprny.—On Port Nicholson and the Natives in 1889. 85 On another occasion I accompanied a party of natives into the hills, near Belmont, to spear pigeons. The spears are about twelve feet long, and very slender—not more than half an inch in diameter at thickest part. They have to be held near the point, and, on a journey, trailed behind, until wanted for immediate use. The pigeons are probably feeding in low trees, or are about water-holes, and are scarcely frightened at the approach of the hunter, who quietly steals under them, sometimes even ascending the lower branches of the tree the bird occupies. The spear is then quietly directed amongst the foliage towards the breast of the bird, which takes little notice of the operation. When the point is within half a yard, a sudden thrust is made, and the bird is transfixed. The point of the weapon is of bone, and barbed. This bone is hung securely by a lanyard at its base to the spear-head, but when ready for use is lashed with thin thread along- side the wood. The wounded bird flutters with such force as would break the spear were the whole rigid, but as arranged, the thread breaks, and the bird on the barbed bone falls the length of the lanyard, where its strugglings do not affect the spear, and it is easily taken by the fowler's left hand. This mode of capturing birds, very soon after our arrival, went out of vogue. The spears were exceedingly difficult to make, and the few that were finished were eagerly bought by the whites as curiosities. Our ship lay to the northward of Somes' Island, and frequent trips were made of an early morning to haul the fishing-net in Lowry Bay. Large trees there overhung the beach, making it a delightful camping-place. We were always successful with the net, taking large quantities of kahawai, moki, and flounders. From this bay the course by boat into the Hutt River, and up the . branches into which it divides, was most interesting and picturesque. A pa stood at the mouth of the river on the eastern side, with large war- canoes drawn.up on the beach, while at the hill-foot were tall stages, from which hung great quantities of fish in the process of sun-drying. Here the natives came out and hailed the boat's crew to land, for ashore it was high festival. Their canoes had come in, the night before, from Island Bay, loaded with “ koura,” or cray-fish, which were at the moment cook- ing in the “hangi,” or Maori stone-oven, with pumpkins, cabbage, and potatoes. The natives here were exceedingly apprehensive of an attack on the part of the Wairarapa tribe, who, if so disposed, could steal down the wooded hills and appear in the cultivations amongst the scattered working parties. Only two years previously bloody fights had taken place in the Wairarapa Valley, and though peace was ostensibly made with the tribe, reprisals from persons or families that had lost relatives might be dreaded. Thus 86 "Transactions.— Miscellaneous. the men always had loaded fire-arms by them, and the * waka taua," or war-canoe, was always ready for an expedition. From the pa we pulled up the Waiwhetu River, which there had lofty pine trees on its banks. The various bends were very beautiful and secluded, and seemed to be the home of the grey duck and teal, and numerous other wild fowl. Here and there, on the bank, was a patch of cultivation, and the luxuriant growth of potatoes, taros, and kumeras, indicated the richness of the soil. As seen from the ship, or the hills, a lofty pine wood appeared to occupy the whole breadth and length of the Hutt Valley, broken only by the stream and its stony margin. This wood commenced about a mile from the sea, the intervening space being a sandy flat and a flax marsh. About the Lower Hutt and the Taita, it required a good axe-man to clear in a day a space large enough to pitch a tent upon. The cultivations of the natives were nearly all on the hill-sides, and chiefly about what is now the Pitone railroad station. The path to the West Coast led up the hill from the west end of Pitone beach, and was very steep and difficult. There was one fine view-spot on ihe summit, and the track descended to the Porirua valley at what is now Mr. Earp'sfarm. There was then no path from Ngahauranga or Kaiwhara, but a war-track existed from Belmont to Pahautanui. The site of the City of Wellington was, in 1839, covered at the Te Aro end with high fern and tupakihi, save about the upper part of Willis Street and Polhill's Gully, where there were high pine trees, partly felled for native cultivations. Wellington Terrace was timbered chiefly with high manuka, some of the trees forty feet high. Thorndon Flat, about Mulgrave and Pipitea Streets, was fern-covered, but with high trees towards the Tinakori Road. The native cultivations were along what is now Hawkestone Street, Tinakori Road, and the base of Tinakori hill, the sides and summit of which were densely timbered, the rata, with its crimson flowers, being conspicuous. The native villages were— first, Pakuao, with two or three families, at Dr. Featherston's; Tiakiwai, where Mr. Izard lives, with three or four families ; Pipitea, from Mr. Charles Johnston's to Moore Street, with about fifty na- tives; Kumutoto, Lindsay's to James', twenty natives; and Te Aro pa with sixty natives. From Mr. James’ to the Court House the beach was so narrow as barely to afford room for passage at high-water, between the sea and the cottages that were built close under the hill, or on sites dug out of its foot. Where the Bank of New Zealand stands there was a short reef of rocks, at the foot of “ Windy Point." The site of the present cricket ground was a deep morass, arranged by the surveyors for a dock reserve; after the earthquake of 1848 raised the land, generally, about the harbour, it became drainable. Heapay.—On Port Nicholson and the Natives in 1889. 87 The land-slips on the Orongo range, to the eastward of Port Nicholson, were not existing in 1839; they are said, and I believe correctly, to have been caused by the great earthquake of 1848.. This was thirty-one years ago, and vegetable growth has not yet concealed the clay and sandstone that was then laid bare. As there were no such slips anywhere about Port Nieholson in 1889, it is, I think, a fair deduction that no shake of equal severity had occurred for at least thirty-one years prior to that date. In exploring the country, and whilst eneamped on various parts of the Hutt Valley, I had opportunities of remarking the freshets of that river, and am of opinion that they did not rise so fast, or prove nearly so destructive to the banks, as during the last ten or twelve years. Natives. The Port Nicholson natives, when the ‘ Tory' arrived here, were a fine specimen of the Maori race. All the men were tried warriors, and had fought suecessively the Waikato, the Wanganui, and the Wairarapa people. But they occupied rather an inconvenient corner of territory. As long as they could maintain peace with the Ngatitoa at Porirua and Kapiti, and the Ngatiraukawa of Otaki, they were tolerably safe; but in the event of serious hostilities in the direction of the West Coast, and such hostilities were threatening, the Wairarapa people, whom they had defeated but not subdued, would operate in their rear, making the position very critical. It was this feeling of insecurity which caused them so readily to sell land to Colonel Wakefield, and to hail the arrival of Europeans. Having deter- mined on the policy to pursue in this matter, Epuni, the Chief, with his immediate people, behaved with great consistency, and never receded from his bargain, or wavered in his friendliness to the settlers. There was a singular mixture of amiability and fierceness about these Port Nicholson natives. The circumstances of their position required them always to have arms ready beside them and the war-canoes at hand on the beach, but to the white people they manifested entire confidence, and exhibited the greatest kindness. When the schooner ‘Jewess’ was stranded on the Pitone beach, they helped to dig a channel for her to the sea, and eventually, by force of numbers, animated by their war yell and chorus, dragged her until fairly afloat. At the subsequent upsetting of a passage-boat in the surf at Pitone they risked their own lives—men, women, and children—to rescue the ex- hausted Europeans from the fatal undertow. Ere the purchase of the land was well completed their relatives were ajreacherously attacked by the Ngatiraukawa in force at Waikanae, and it required hard fighting, with all the advantages of position, to beat them off. Ere the excitement of this attack had passed away the chief of Waiwhetu, Puakawa, was shot in his potato field by a marauding band from Wairarapa. 88 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Arriving at Waikanae, as we did, just after the action terminated, it may be interesting to notice what occurred. The Waikanae pa stood on the sand-hills, behind the beach, and may have contained about 350 natives, of whom about 200 were fighting men. The attack had been made just before daylight on a small outpost of the pa, where a boy noticing a strange native peering into the whare seized a gun and shot the intruder dead, thereby giving the alarm and arousing the inmates of the larger pa. The attacking party now surged against the stockade of the main village, but were fiercely resisted. Spears were thrust through the fences, and men shot down in the act of surmounting them, but no entrance gained. Then the fight would lull for a time, to be resumed outside in rough “ scrimmaging,” as the whalers called it, amongst the sand-hills. Te Rauparaha, the great Ngatitoa chief, watched the fight. He professed friendship for the Waikanae natives, but had come over from Kapiti Island to assist the Ngatiraukawa with his advice, rather than materially. He was seen by the people within the pa, and a quick rush out was made to capture him. The Ngatiraukawa interposed and sacrificed themselves to save him. The fighting was here hand to hand, but Te Rauparaha escaped, only how- ever by swimming off to his canoe, which was moored outside the surf. We met him ere he arrived at his island, which was distant about three miles from Waikanae. He looked crest-fallen, but was composed and self- possessed, and more than usually friendly in manner. On Te Rauparaha’s departure the Ngatiraukawa became dispirited, and carrying off their wounded, retreated rapidly along the beach towards their fortified pa at Otaki. The doctors of our expedition immediately proceeded to the assistance of the wounded. We entered the pa about three hours after the fight was over. The chief, killed by a musket-ball, lay in state on a platform in the large enclosure; his hair was decorated with huia feathers, a fine kaitaka mat was spread over him, a greenstone meri was in his hand, with the leather thong around his wrist; his spear and musket were by his side. The bodies of slain persons of inferior rank were lying in the verandas of their respective houses, each covered with the best mat, and with the personal weapons conspicuously placed beside. Around the bier of the chief the people of the pa were standing in a circle, performing the tangi; the women, and several of the men, had divested themselves of clothing down to the waist-belt, and were bleeding profusely from a series of cuts inflicted in the ecstasy of their grief. It was not for the chief only that the tangi was proceeding, each person there had some near relative lying dead within a few feet of where they stood, and the cold and placid face in their midst was only the objective embodiment of their mourning. Several of those in the circle were themselves desper- £ Heapuy.—On Port Nicholson and the Natives in 1839. 39 ately wounded, and supported themselves on the shoulder or hand of their neighbour, decorously to pay the melancholy rite. But a party of men were still out amongst the sand-hills burying the dead of the enemy, or bringing in the corpse of a friend. Before we en- tered the pa we noticed, standing on a provision stage high up above the stockade, a woman, who appeared by her violent gesticulations to be much excited. Closely following us as we passed into the stockade was a litter- party carrying a dead body, the last of the missing. Suddenly there was a heavy fall, or thud, close by us; it was the woman from the high stage, recognizing at last the corpse of her son she had frantically thrown herself down, nearly twenty feet, and lay there, apparently dead, while the litter- party passed on. Such matters were apparently of trifling moment while a tangt was proceeding. There were a number of seriously-wounded men to be attended to, and gun-shot to be extracted. One native had the tendon-achilles cut through, and the foot was drawn upward and powerless. To some bones of the arm and leg, fractured by shot, they had already applied splints, fairly made from the thick part of the leaf of the Phormium tenax. To cut and lacerated surfaces they had applied dressings of herbs. How far these were effective, medici- nally, it is impossible to say, but after a few days nearly all the wounded were progressing favourably and without fever. One man had his knee smashed by a bullet, and he was advised to submit to amputation. He agreed to have the operation performed, and was told about being able to walk with a wooden leg. The children considered there was fun to be found in wooden legs, and proceeded to manufacture them according to their lights—stumping about before the wounded man. At this ridicule he changed his views, and said that he would rather keep his leg and have it buried with him than live to be laughed at. Most of the wounds healed by what is termed ‘first intention." The severed tendon-achilles united, but with increased length and consequent loss of power in the foot. The Ngatiraukawa had 45 killed, and the defenders of the pa 14 killed and about 30 wounded. The man with the injured knee recovered for a time, but with a stiffened joint. Four years afterwards he had it removed by Dr. McShane, of Nelson. He smoked his pipe during the whole of the operation. 40 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Art. IV.—On the Principle of New Zealand Weather Forecast. By Commander R. A. Epwis, R.N. Plates I-III. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th October, 1879.] Tue subject treated of in this paper is one which has for some years past received great attention in other countries, and their publications upon Weather Forecast give us ample information as to the method by which their predietions are arrived at, and the measure of success which has attended their efforts. It is now proposed to give some description of the manner in which the Weather Forecast of this colony is carried out. The subject is one which may be considered of general interest, and the method of procedure differs in some respects from that practised in other coun- tries ; but as it has already stood the test of some remarkably changeable seasons, with a large percentage of success, it seems now desirable to invite further investigation in the matter. * In the first efforts to arrive at some conclusions as to probable changes in the weather, the principal difficulty which eame under consideration was the deflections which the mountainous nature of the country seemed to have power to create, not only in the direction of the wind, but also in the dis- tribution of pressure. For instance, an isobar will generally run very fairly from Russell to Grahamstown, Tauranga, Gisborne, and Napier; but instead of continuing toward Castlepoint and Lyttelton, it will be found to curve inland and westward toward New Plymouth, then to turn southward between the latter place and Wanganui, and return eastwards towards Castle- point which it leaves on its right. Now, it will be found upon investiga- tion that pressure is nearly always higher at Westport and Hokitika than at Kaikoura, which itates this isobar bei g again drawn westward, i.e., back through Cook Strait, and passing Cape Farewell turn toward south to West- port and Hokitika, from which point it returns eastward, passing out be- tween Blenheim and Kaikoura. A second isobar should have commenced at Auckland and run toward Taupo, Wanganui and Blenheim; and a third might be reasonably expected to pass over Westport, Hokitika, Queenstown, and Balclutha ; but it is evident that, according to meteorological law, they must follow the first line of equal pressure upon that side which will show that they define the position of a lower pressure, and this necessitates their following it through all its sinuosities, but westward of it. Such distributions of pressure were found to be by far the most preva- lent state of affairs, and in many instances the curves were much more dis-* torted than shown on the diagram ( PI. IL., Jig. 1), but it seemed probable that other disturbing influences must also be in existence, and tending to TRANS. NZ.INSTITUTE,VOLXILPLI 70 wlusiraie Paper by Cap Edwin, on X Z Weather forecasts. Epwin.—On the Principle of New Zealand Weather Forecast. 41 exaggerate whatever was due to irregularity of the land surface; and it was only by closely watching the changes accompanying the passage of every low area, and patiently endeavouring to assimilate these conditions, that it became evident that the complications already alluded to were the result of there frequently being more than one low area in the vicinity of the country at the same time. One of the principal aids in arriving at this conclusion is dicen from the substitution of contour lines for the isobar as generally drawn; these isobaric contours are drawn in the direction which the wind blows to—flow in fact with the wind—and the idea of adopting this plan originated in an endeavour to comprehend local peculiarities, for it was evident after investigating such remarkable distributions of pressure as those already referred to, that, if warnings were sent of an approaching gale, they must make known the limits within which it would be locally experienced, for if the warning were based upon theoretical principles it would frequently be incorrect, and the calculation of gradients under these circumstances seemed rather difficult. In drawing these isobaric contours, the mobile nature of air has to be taken into consideration. We all know how susceptible it is of expansion or contraction, to changes of temperature and pressure; and this being the case, it is but a step further to allow that a cyclonic wind, whose shape may be assumed as circular while beyond the influence of land, may become much changed in shape when it approaches a mountainous country, and by reference to Piddington and other writers upon circular storms it will be found that this point has already been under notice; but a little further consideration will show that this is not the only difficulty that has to be dealt with, as it will soon become evident that the subject contains some complex features; for while the front or advancing curves of a cyclone, encountering high land, become retarded and deflected, the centre continues to press forward with undiminished speed, and consequently the isobars become packed in the vicinity of the retarding influence; but from these causes the curves will have a tendency to open out at the rear of the cyclone (Pl. I., fig. 2), and as the land has a retarding effect upon the cyclone’s advance, so will it also act upon it after the centre has passed, causing the rear curves to be extended; but the advancing curves will be compressed under either condition ( Pl. I., fig. 3). In drawing these isobaric contours, it must be constantly remembered that they must never cross each other, and that the object must be to endea- vour to depict a series of concentric rings more or less bent out of their true shape ; each tenth of an inch of barometric difference must be thas mec flowing in the direction toward which the wind moves, and each 49 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. reciprocating the movements of the curves upon either side of it, and every advantage must be taken of river-channels, mountain-passes, and other such routes by which the contours ean be shown to make their way across the country; the state of the sea, especially at exposed places, must also be carefully shown by these contours; and by close attention to these principles, the occurrence of gales at points far distant from each other, and the existence of but moderate winds at places close to where such gales exist, can be accounted for, and reason can be shown why the sea- disturbance is subject to similar irregularities, all apparently the effect of purely local causes working independently of each other, but which are in reality part of one system, whose effect is intensified at these points. The isobaric contour also enables another difficulty to be accounted for; viz., the fact that the barometer moves more rapidly at some places than it does at others; and why, after it has fallen from a high point at all stations, there are frequent instances of its not recovering its original position over a considerable extent of country for a long time ; for instance, let it be assumed that pressure ranges between 80°50 in the northern part of this colony, and 30:20 in the south, and that a fall takes place amounting to about seven-tenths of an inch in the latter, and two-tenths in the former districts ; now, when a recovery sets in it will be found that the barometer seldom rises to its original position at all places by a difference not unusually amounting to half an inch at the southern stations, and although rapid oscillations may take place in that part of the colony, yet pressure south- ward of Napier does not return to its original position for a period varying from a few days to several weeks. This general position of the lower pressure toward the south is in accordance with our meteorological knowledge of this hemisphere, but it does not seem to offer an explanation of why high readings of the barometer in the south are not so unusual as may generally be supposed, and it should render forecast easy, as it gives a gradient showing westerly winds; but experience in storm-warning shows that easterly winds are frequent, and easterly gales must by no means be left out of the estimate of probable weather, especially at places lying south of the 40th degree of latitude, as it almost invariably happens that whenever the wind backs at Places south- ward of Napier it changes into north-east, although it does not always blow a gale from that quarter. In the attempt to account for some of these points the isobaric contours were of great value, and their use led to the idea of the possibility of the exis- tence of multipl lying sout} 1 of contours, or lines of higher pressure, whi ch sis. 4 H1 1 41 1 1 Fide: va 41 wards when they have passed, or if they are passing at a considerable distance Epwin.—On the Principle of New Zealand Weather Forecast. 48 from the country. These are the special principles of New Zealand Weather Forecast; and the diagrams ( PI. II. ) accompanying this paper of the pressure within the New Zealand area on 7th, 8th, and 9th July, 1879, are examples drawn in aecordance with its rules, but they must not be considered specimens of actual forecast—a subject which will be treated of in another paper. In these diagrams the wind deflections are eliminated, and they are, in fact, diagrams of the results already arrived at. In support of the system now in use it may be urged that if according to accepted principles each cyclone, or area of low pressure, is a complete circle, then it follows that from whatever point pressure commenced to diminish it must return to that point again as the low area passes away, unless it be assumed that, instead of pursuing a direct route, the cyclone has moved in a more or less erratie course, but by this principle of multiple areas we can readily perceive that it is possible that gale may succeed gale in rapid succession, and for a considerable period, each depres- sion following its predecessor, and the whole system moving in a more or less curved but well-defined route; and it obviates what has always appeared to me to be an impossibility, viz.: the retrograde movement of any low area. Secondly: the facility with which the approach of a “ backing” wind can be foretold; this ‘‘backing”’ being in reality the advancing curves of a new depression, whose approach will cause pressure to diminish before it has reached the point from which it at first commenced to fall. The proxi- mity of such an area is shown by the extent of the area over which the barometer is shown to be rising, and, together with the further area over which the isobaric contours show that pressure is likely to increase the sea- movement, has also to be taken into consideration. Thirdly: the advantages afforded by it for reliable forecast of sea-move- ment, a point of information which is of considerable value to bar-harbours and roadsteads. This principle of contour lines and multiple areas enables an explanation to be offered as to how such complex movements, as a decrease at the ex- tremes and an increase in the central portions of the country, can take place; and, also, why several successive rapid movements may take place in the south without being nearly so remarkably produced in the north; and it also affords a means of determining the positions of the depressions, although they may lie at a considerable distance to seaward. It also shows the existence of what may be termed double-centred areas of low pressure ; in these the barometer falls rapidly, the wind veering by north and west and blowing a heavy gale, a recovery then sets in, the wind changes southward of west, and the barometer rises rapidly for about half an inch, and immediately that it reaches its highest point it commences to 44 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. fall again within a limited area, but continues to rise slowly at places beyond those limits, while within them the wind suddenly ‘‘ backs” to the north- east, and a second hard northerly gale becomes rapidly developed within this area; this second fall usually reaches the same point as its predecessor, the barometer then makes a second rapid increase which extends to the whole colony, and a heavy gale from the southward is generally experienced, this being the second southerly gale within the limited area already men- tioned ; the lowest pressure in these gales generally ranges between 28-90 and 28:50, and the total fall at the southern extreme of the colony amounts to about 1:25 inches. These areas usually travel about east by north, and the general, or I believe it may be termed the normal routes of the gales which approach New Zealand, are between W.S.W. and S.S.W., moving to the opposite quarter; but after a considerable period, generally not less than six months, a depression comes in from the north-west, after whose passage the normal route is resumed, and this change takes place, on some occasions, with such promptitude that it is difficult to issue warnings in advance of it. Compar- atively few of these north-west areas have come under investigation since the principles of Forecast now in use have been fully in operation, but there have been several of them, and there is no doubt that they, at times, are of the class here described as double-centred. The depressions which approach from the west of south are systems of multiple areas, some of which are of intricate construction, and during their passage the wind changes from north-east to north and west, veering as we term it in New Zealand, but backing according to meteorological law; and, as each suc- cessive area approaches us, the wind moves from west of south to north of west, which we term backing, but which is a veering movement according to meteorological law. From these remarks it will be seen that the wind- change in this colony is the same as in Great Britain, but during the passage of areas from north-west the wind obeys the laws for the Southern Hemisphere. An interesting subject for investigation is offered by the atmospheric circulation of the temperate zones; for in England and America the same routes seem to hold good as in New Zealand, the depressions travelling from south of west to the north of east, and being at times interrupted by the passage of an area from north-west, and it thus appears that northern countries are mainly supplied from a tropical direction, the balance being restored from a polar quarter, whereas our supply is generally derived from the polar side, and recouped, as it were, from the tropic. A marked feature of this Forecast are binding isobaric contours, or binding-lines, which enclose the secondary and minor areas, and which are Epwin.—On the Principle of New Zealand Weather Forecast. 45 detected by pressure being lowered by successive steps, none of which are immediately recovered. These binding-lines are an indispensable feature of the work, and to explain them more readily it is necessary to refer to the accompanying diagrams / Pl. III. ), the first of which is intended to illustrate the passage of a system whose low areas travel on a route inclined about 67? from the true North or E.N.E. It extends over a period of eleven days, an interval which has been, for convenience-sake, extended to fully one-third more time than such a system would usually occupy. Each division upon the line of route represents 24 hours, further subdivided into 12-hour spaces; and by moving the diagram on the line of route, making each division coincide with that upon the fixed line, and marking the barometer readings at Hokianga, Wellington, and Bluff upon the usual form of register, an illustration will be obtained of how movements, which do not appear to have much in common, may be shown to be the result of one system of depressions, and that they are in reality reciprocal.* This diagram shows that on the first day the barometers were 80:55 at Hokianga, wind north-west; 80:47 at Wellington, wind north-north-west ; and 80:30 at Bluff, wind north. As we advance the diagram to the right, we find, after an inverval of twelve hours, that it has fallen nearly a tenth at Hokianga, five-hundredths at Wellington, and one-tenth at the Bluff, but without any material change in the wind-direction, though it will have increased in force, and would under these circumstances amount to a strong wind at places in the South Island. By the second day we find pressure stil diminishing, and that during the last twelve hours the barometer has fallen to 80:40 at Hokianga, 80:80 at Wellington, and to 90:00 at Bluff. The wind has at each of these places changed more towards west, backing according to meteorological law, but veering according to our views, and a heavy northerly gale is now blowing at places lying southward of the contour of 30-30, there being also a heavy north-west sea at Grey- mouth and Hokitika. A further interval of twelve hours shows that the barometer is still falling; and on the third day it reads 80:25 at Hokianga, wind west; 80°10 at Wellington, wind north-west; and 29-60 at Bluff wind about north-west. The total fall at this station now amounts to seven- tenths of an inch in three days, which would in reality have occurred within one, but it has been extended for the sake of keeping the curves further apart. By continuing the movement of the diagram to the right, we find that within the next twelve hours the barometer at Bluff makes a further downward movement to 29-55, giving a total decrease of seven-and-a-half *NorEÉ.—For the moving diagram, a chart has 1 for ko anhaa Lr d 3? ? 3? TP on which the position of New Zealand is depicted in relation to the isobaric contours af . successive periods of two days’ interval (Pl. III.).] —Ep. 46 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. tenths, and that within the same twelve hours it rises to 29-64, the wind veering south of west as pressure increases. A southerly gale is now blow- ing over the South Island, and a heavy sea accompanies it at Greymouth and Hokitika; but the barometer is still falling at Hokianga and Wellington, and we further find that it rises at Hokianga, where its lowest point is 30°25 before pressure has at all increased at Wellington, where it falls to 29-98. On the fourth day the barometer has risen to 29-90 at Bluff, the sea making moderately on the eastern coast; at Wellington the wind has changed southward, and pressure has decreased to 29°88; and at Hokianga the barometer has risen a little. The wind is now from the southward of west throughout the colony, and the low area which has just passed is now shown to the eastward. Now, if this cyclonic wind is a true circle, pressure should continue to increase in all parts of the colony until it has returned at all stations to the point from which it commenced to diminish, and the wind should change to eastward of south; but these conditions are frequently delayed for a considerable time, and it generally happens that the barometer commences to fall again in the south long before it has attained the height necessary to ensure complete cyclonic formation, the deficiency being curiously graduated, the approach to the complete form being most nearly attained in the north and becoming markedly less so in the south. To anticipate this falling movement, which is always accompanied by a backing wind, is one of the difficulties of weather forecast; and, as its occur- rence is a sure sign of more bad weather, it is evident that a warning received after it has taken place is deprived of much of its value in practice. The approach of this backing movement is shown by the tendency of the curves to open out, caused by there being but little difference of pressure at adjacent stations. It is more readily detected in the southern than in the northern part of the colony, there being a wider land-area in the former case, and it is also accompanied by a decrease of sea on the western coast of the South Island ; unless the new area be of large dimensions, in which case the sea will change northward, even while the barometer is rising; or, if the depressions are passing more to the southward of us than usual, and are at the same time moving on a north-easterly line, then the sea will continue from the south-west, as if the barometer were about to continue rising. Another point of value is humidity, which will usually be found to have decreased as the barometer rises, but not to the extent that the increased pressure would imply, while, in some instances, it will be found that an increase accompanies an increase of pressure ; neither of these movements seems unreasonable, if it can be admitted that the northern winds of one depression can exist in close proximity to the southern winds of the one im- Epwix.—On the Principle of New Zealand Weather Forecast. 47 mediately preceding it; in the space intermediate between the areas the weather is nearly always fine with light winds, whose direction mainly depends upon whether the place is nearest to the approaching or departing depression. s In this example the space between the two is shown to be 29:90, and thus the line of 80:0 becomes an isobarometrical binding-contour or binding- line of one or more such areas as have just passed, and if pressure again diminishes, the re-appearance of all the contours above 80-0 will be delayed, and therefore they are also binding-lines; but as experience shows that pres- sures above 30:10 are of much less frequent occurrence at the southern stations than at others, it will be more convenient to consider 30°10 as the first binding-line, 30-0 the second, and so on, should the systems be suffici- ently complex to necessitate the number of these lines being increased. Referring again to the diagram, it will be found that while the wind con- tinues from the southward upon the eastern and western coast, it has already backed at the Bluff, and as the diagram moves along it shows pressure diminishing rapidly in the south, and within twelve hours it has fallen to 29-75 at Bluff, wind north, and a second northerly gale has now commenced, accompanied by a heavy sea upon the western coast; but at Wellington the barometer has risen to 29-95, wind still from the southward, while at Hoki- anga it has risen to 80:28, wind W.S.W. The fifth day shows a further fall to 29°55 at Bluff, and a corresponding movement has evidently taken place over a wide area, resulting in a heavy northerly gale; the barometer has now risen to 80:0 at Wellington, the highest point reached being about 30°02, the wind soon afterwards backing to N.W., while but little change has taken place at Hokianga; within the next twelve hours the barometer falls to 29-45 at Bluff, and it also rises to 29:50, wind as before, veering south- ward as pressure is increased, and causing a heavy sea on the western coast; at Wellington the barometer falls to 29-86, and although this is only a fall of 16/100 it is accompanied by a heavy northerly gale at this station; at Hokianga the barometer falls to 80-22, wind W.N.W. On the siath day a further increase has taken place in the south, the reading at Bluff being 29-72; a hard southerly gale is now experienced throughout the South Island, but pressure at Wellington has diminished to 29-78, and at Hokianga to 90-18, the wind having now changed south of west at both places; twelve hours later the barometer has risen to 29-90 at Bluff, and the gale has now decreased at stations south of Lyttelton, but is blowing hard between that place and Napier, barometer reading 29-82 at Wellington, rising; and 30°15 at Hokianga, where it has fallen slightly, the wind being a gale from the southward of west at both places, and the sea is now heavy between Kaikoura and Castlepoint. 48 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Now, according to the difference in pressure, which has been frequently shown by this diagram as existing between Hokianga and Wellington, it is evident that gales should have been more generally mentioned as occurring at the former station ; but in practice this is not found to be the case nearly so often as these differences would admit; and this is mainly caused by there being a spreading out of the contours at the upper part of the North Island, which will be more readily understood by a reference to Diagram No. 1. The second low area is now shown to the eastward of the colony ; and by the seventh day pressure is shown to be still increasing. The second binding- line has passed the Bluff, and this is evidently the first occasion upon which the barometer has stood at 30 inches at that station since the commence- ment of this series ; pressure at Wellington has risen to 29:90, and to 80-18 at Hokianga. This seventh day shows the second depression at a long dis- tance from the land, but it is evident by the contours that it continues to influence the weather, as the winds are still all from the southward; but there is now again a widening of the contours in the South, showing the approach of a backing wind; the barometer at Bluff now reads 80:02. A further interval of twelve hours shows that pressure has continued to increase in the North, the readings being 80-0 at Wellington, and 80:20 at Hokianga, but at Bluff it has fallen to 80-0, and the wind has backed into north. It now becomes evident that the first binding-line of 80:10 encloses not only the two areas which have already passed, but that perhaps several more may be approaching. The eighth day shows a fall to 29:85 at Bluff, but it has continued rising at Wellington, where the barometer reads 90-06, the second binding-line having passed, and pressure has also in- creased at Hokianga to 80:25. The diagram now shows that during the next twelve hours the barometer at Bluff has fallen to 29-75, and has a third lime commenced to rise, wind again changing to the south of west; and by the ninth day pressure has increased to 29:90, but it has decreased at Wel- lington to 80-02, wind backing about four points, while pressure has steadily increased to 30-30 at Hokianga; during the next twenty-four hours, the second and first binding-lines are shown to have passed the southern extreme of the colony, and the barometer has risen at all stations, being now 80:15 at Bluff, 80:08 at Wellington, and 30°30 at Hokianga, all with winds from south- ward. The third depression is seen to the eastward of the South Island; the barometer continues steadily rising; and by the eleventh day the first binding-line is shown to the eastward of Wellington, and pressure has increased to 80:25 at Bluff, 80-18 at Wellington, and 30:83 at Hokianga. VOLXILPLIL LI S N Z INSTITUTE TRAN A" AS" eee l ii n Sam | y Hn X N f ` = | | a Re | | vel | | Vil T TTA OUI JN "NS : Saat | 2 i MU E A Wed S| | MIDONS d Ils E ee ves | MET COHEN T js Nt A d IK " ~~ : NU Pn ^ | i F M È m ante hs | a ADs N Y "n 3 a j i d C SES af ru IN i es 3 zt "vs t T ae = TAE EM (S Ma : N iE H ANNU DON | : A ^N M E T 2US G | pr S | | o) n ] = : M In i" TT y T AI 1 MN E | : \ N 1l à À i dg. \ 2 > T 1 E - g > a I oera oc SF zl md E: GPS Ai bà A E Eoo paR a | Eoo a —— E €— i | £u PX xo d a QUI * Y b JEN | d SN E 2 ERU Ne bind | ^ NGC USE F Ni ; N B. DES NE: ey: j NNI i in [13 - aii pi ME : i ri LINE Ear M ie zw = M NM a EN z ih oy eN | : Mesi fs NN AN CSI : NU e| HI : M — i i B o Q © 3573 ` — i a oe i | & à 2\alealalalrr |j] 1'EOS T Es 3 3 E ! A E z a J Dur 170" 8 S " 30. 70 new m pe | Ni s. uu Le m. P x IT | Ml i Y 22 d wis a i" uiti Mana Nm N N E 1 s iM 5 i TM o il | il jimit i? ule Pt viii f ! (usec ta, TRANS. NZ. INSTITUTE. VOL.XILPLIT. 30-50 To vllustrate Paper by Cap Edwin, on NZ. Weather forecasts f WEATHER REPORTS ror 7rn, 8ru, AND 9ru JULY, 1879. Tue following detailed WEATHER "Babies for the 7th, 8th, and 9th July, "m afforded the data from which the three Diagrams on P SION ate II. were construc WEATHER REPORTS FOR JULY 8TH, 1879, 9 A.M. SBSBSSSSSBSSBSEesssss SSSEBEBSE SESS SRSSAIARASSAAKKSKESSESSESS dagli: e èe Dw a 3 ve tlc coc we CUT bb e+ tet M -eESSSSOSSee8: ess cecum NEW ZEALAND. | WEATHER REPORTS FOR JULY 7TH, 1879, 9 A.M. —— ae rj ips ied 3 E 8 E 9 State of STATION. "E - Bà o E E] Sea. height. |< a 5 RAMS . e 29°95 i N.E. Russell .. y "00 t Calm. 9:08 S E. "05 ( E.N.E. di 80°01 N.E. ie 30°02 N.E. Smooth. 30°06 Calm. bat 4 S.E. ii ) , Slight swell. j Smooth j Smooth. 48 Moderate. f S.E. swell. ) Slight swell. Moderate swell. Moderate sea. Hvy. East'ly sw. ue ht swell. FAR Smooth. "aote arome- ju e Sed —- height. Force meter. VUES IEEE IEEE IEEE EN EÉEBEZELZÉEEBNSEESÉSBSS State of Sea. Smooth. Smooth. Heavy swell. Here Moderate, Smooth, Slight swell. Rough. Considerable sea. Easterly swell. Mo deii Easterly sea. Considerable 8ea, Blight swell. e ove River low. River low. 29°60 SSSSSSSSSSSSPSSSSSSSVSsSssssyssssy SSERESSEPEREERSERSESESSSERSESSLSS Force 0 to 12. WEATHER REPORTS FOR JULY 9TH, 1879, 9 A.M, State of Sea, e e Cr 5 bo Co OD EO i: 9-988888: ong: mwan C cow toco bo be Dow we eue ect: S-S888: to: wo w Cu e A Smooth. Rough. Smooth. Rather heavy. jaca ough. Smooth, Smooth, Moderate swell. Considerable sea. Slight swell. Considerable sea. Smooth, Slight S.E. swell. Smooth. [7 bO w wwe aSSTT OWE: River low. *spoe40 p Laym pung mew jo adroumg ey) "()—' NIAGrT 50 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Art. V.—On the Ignorance of the Ancient New Zealander of the Use of Projectile Weapons. By Coueman Puurs. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 22nd November, 1879.] Mr. W. Cotenso, in a paper contributed to the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute last year, headed as above,* replies at some length to a short paper I had the honour of reading before the Wellington Philosophical Society during the Session of 1877,+ entitled, “On a peculiar Method of Arrow Propulsion as observed amongst the Maoris.” Mr. Colenso’s paper appears to me worthy of the greatest consideration, and I readily forgive his some- what discourteous allusions to my remarks, seeing that I have been led to enquire more fully into a subject of so much interest. I propose in the following paper to add to the authorities quoted by Mr. Colenso, and set out the further knowledge we possess of the use of the bow and arrow among other savage nations. We may thus be able to deduce, from so many scattered facts, some ethnological analogy concerning the ** Whence of the Maori.” I must confess, however, that, in my opinion, far too much importance has been attached, by purely local writers, to this question. Had any one of these writers travelled among and seen the different sections of the Malayan or Papuan races, inhabiting the South Sea Islands, he would not have exalted the question of the * Whence of the Maori” into the position to which he has exalted it. Mr. Colenso, who fairly enough represents this party, takes me severely to task for having ventured to say, in effect, that - the Maori was merely one of those sections, and that. his ancestry would be found among some of the people inhabiting one of the Pacific groups of islands. I imagine that I am justified in making such a statement. Pro- fessor Owen, in May last, when reading a paper before the Royal Colonial Institute on the extinct animals of the Colonies of Great Britain, } observed :— ** When the Maori first landed he found no kangaroo or other herbivorous beast to yield him flesh. The sole source of that food—the more needed from the absence of the bread-fruit and cocoanut trees, which he had left at Hawaii, and the colder climate of the land to which he had been driven— was in the various kinds of huge birds incapable of flight.” And again, when referring to the Australian dingo :—* With the remains of the extinct birds of New Zealand, I have received evidences of the dog of the Maoris, and abundant proofs, in ancient cooking pits, of their contemporaneity with species of Dinornis. But I have found nothing to affect the inference that the Maoris brought with them in their canoes, when they first came to New Zealand, their dogs as well as their wives and children." Such * Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XL, p. 106. + Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. X., p. 97. } Trans. Royal Col. Inst., 1879. Purrutps.—On the Use of Projectile Weapons by the Maoris. 51 explicit sentences, coming from so great an authority, sufficiently excuse me for having thought and written in a similar strain. Moreover, I do not think Mr. Colenso justified in treating so severely my modest enquiry. It appears to me that in opening this very question of the use of the bow and arrow by the Maori, I am likely to be of more service in settling the vexed question of the original habitat than the pages of speculative theory before now given tous. One ounce of fact is worth more than a pound of theory. Following out such particular questions as the use of the bow or other warlike implement, the construction of language, the mode of sepulture, or other habits and customs of any savage race, are the ounces of fact, and Mr. Colenso himself admits the incompleteness of his own essay, to which I referred in my first paper, upon the particular ounce, the use of the bow and arrow. In causing him to explain his rather loose sentence, touching the manner in which the Maoris projected their fiery- headed darts when attacking a pa (a similar custom prevails in Fiji), I think I have been of service. I am sorry also to point out that Mr. Colenso has much disappointed me by the use of the word ** ancient" in the heading of his paper. While respecting him as one of the chief authorities in New Zealand upon Maori manners and customs, I still think that he has not been sufficiently par- ticular in his use of terms. What does he mean by the word ancient? Surely not the New Zealander referred to by Professor Owen, who ** upon landing found only huge kinds of birds incapable of flight." The whole line of his argument tends to observations made by Captain Cook and later authorities. For all any commentator can say or prove, the true ancient New Zealander might have brought the bow and arrow with him, but finding it of little service, and having little inclination to use it in play, soon aban- doned its use and manufacture. (This is not the only thing the modern Maori has forgotten. He appears also to have forgotten the existence of the Moa, and thought its bones those belonging to a great eagle, while we are pretty well assured that the ancient Maori feasted upon it.) Yet this reasonable supposition could never be entertained, for its mere consideration would cut the ground from beneath the feet of the speculators. They would have to admit the likelihood of the truth of the traditions of the various migrations and disembarkations from the different canoes, together with the similarity of language to that of Tahiti, and other habits and customs similar to those of the South Sea Island people, and that the Maori actually did come to New Zealand from some one of these islands. The fashion has become not to admit this sensible deduction, but to surround the origin of the Maori in mystery, if not almost to exalt him into the position of a separate and distinct race. Unfortunately for such reasoners, argu- 52 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. ments are so loose that they hardly bear criticism. They neither induce nor deduce anything, but weakly mix both lines of argument. Broadly, I, with others, think and assert that the Maori originally came from some one of the South Sea Islands, and support the assertion by deductive reasoning ; pointing, in proof, to the traditions, similarity of language, ete., ete. The only other course open is to oppose the assertion, and reason inductively fact by fact to any given point, or at least to show that my facts do not support the original supposition. The speculators adopt neither course, and Mr. Colenso contents himself with asking, ‘‘ Where did Mr. Phillips get the idea that the bow and arrow was the familiar weapon of the Maori ancestry ?' It will be quite time to ask such a question when Mr. Colenso is prepared to show that the original deduction (the migration) is erroneous.* I am also surprised at the following sentence contained in Mr. Colenso's paper (p. 110) :—'* My own testimony is this (the same indeed as that of Cook and others) that the New Zealander never knew the use of the bow and arrow, nor of the sling proper. (the italics are his own), as used, for instance, by the natives of Tahiti." Such a sentence, without a shadow of proof, coming from so great an authority is remarkable. I am quite convinced that Captain Cook would never have so committed himself: while I am fully prepared to admit that the modern Maori—let us say, since the time of Tasman—appeared to know nothing of the bow and arrow, I cannot, nor do I think any one else will, agree in saying that the ancient New Zea- lander, the immediate descendant of one of the partakers in the migration to which tradition so definitely points, was also in a similar state of igno- rance. Indeed I am inclined to take quite the opposite view, and say that the New Zealander did once know the use of the bow and arrow, and I shall endeavour to prove so grave a statement. That proof will be as follows :— Polynesia may be roughly divided into East and West. The Western tribes (Papuan and Malay) used and still use the bow and arrow as a weapon of war. The Eastern tribes (Malay) used and still use it either sacredly or in sport. The Maoris evidently came from the East. On landing they found little use for their sportive weapon, the remembrance of which perhaps, and not the weapon itself, they alone brought with them. They consequently soon abandoned its manufacture. In their original home they had never been accustomed to see the bow and arrow used, except sacredly or in sport. A few tribes, in shallow waters, upon coral reefs, used and still use the bow and arrow for shooting fish, but there were no coral reefs, with like advan- tages, to be found in New Zealand. I am, therefore, entitled to consider * See note A, Putties.—On the Use of Projectile Weapons by the Maoris. 53 domicile, and the physical features and animal life of a new country, in- duced him to forget. It will doubtless surprise the speculators above re- ferred to to learn that this very forgetfulness, as a deductive argument, is only further proof of the soundness of the original deduction. Moreover, Mr. Colenso, in his reference to Dr. Forster's remarks * upon the use of the bow and arrow by the Tanna people, is likely to mislead the ineautious reader. The Island of Tanna forms one of the New Hebrides group, lying slightly to the westward of the longitude of New Zealand, and about 1600 miles immediately to the northward. Its inhabitants are a mixed race (Papuan and Malayan). As I have already said the bow is a familiar weapon of war among the Papuans, let no one suppose for a mo- ment that the Maoris came from any of their islands. The ordinary course of the trade winds and great storms effectually prevents any such means of communication. Dr. Forster’s remarks ‘are, therefore, quite inappropriate. Bo also with regard to the natives of New Caledonia. The trade winds blow direct from a little to the north of New Zealand towards New Caledonia, nine months out of the year, the rest of the year being the hurrieane season. (Sydney sailing vessels, in order to reach New Caledonia, have first to pick up the longitude of New Zealand). Now the general feature of the South Sea Island canoe is to run before the wind, though an oblique course can be steered by keeping as close to the wind's eye as the sailing properties of the particular craft allow. It would have been almost an impossible task to tack down to New Zealand from Tanna or New Caledonia. Both of these examples are therefore quite beside the question at issue. . Tanna must not be confused with Tonga, for Tonga and the Tongese occupy quite a different position, and a north-easter might easily have sent a canoe load of warriors down to the Kermadec Islands, and so on to New Zealand.+ I desire also to point out that the heading of my paper contains the words ** peculiar method of propulsion." This peculiarity was the one im- portant feature of the paper, and sufficient attention has hardly been given to it. Whether the Maori knew or did not know the use of the bow was quite secondary to the chief question—peculiarity of propulsion. I have enquired of old natives in the Wairarapa concerning the matter, and shown them the arrow and whip. While expressing ignorance of the former, they readily applied the whip to a raupo stick to cast it in sport. AsI know of no similar method of propulsion existing among civilized nations, I think we should all feel favoured by Mr. Colenso more carefully enquiring into its o i With regard to the use of the bow and arrow among other savage nations, I gather that it is or has been used as follows :—And first, with regard to * Loc. cit. Appendix A, p. 114. t See Note B, 54 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Polynesia. I have before stated that the Eastern Polynesians make but little use of the weapon, while the Western Polynesians always use it as a weapon of war. This difference is readily accounted for if we turn to the various tribes inhabiting the Malay Islands, the original habitat of all the Poly- nesian islanders. There are four great races in Malaysia possessing various degrees of civilization and great difference of language, and three or four Savage races. The first are the Malay proper (inhabiting the Malay penin- sula, and the coast regions of Borneo and Sumatra); the Javanese; the Bugis; and the Talagese. The savage races comprise the Dyaks (wil tribes of Borneo), Battaks, Jakuns, and the aborigines of Northern Celebes, Sula Island, and part of Bouru. These various peoples have, at different times, migrated, or been driven to migrate, and naturally carried their dif- ferent customs with them. Some used the bow and arrow sacredly or in Sport, some as a weapon of war, and some the poisoned arrow. Western Polynesia has evidently been peopled by the wild Malay tribes, or Papuans, who use the war or poisoned arrow; while Eastern Polynesia has evidently been peopled by the long-haired, more civilized, Malayans, who were not so savage and warlike. With reference to the statement that archery was a sacred game :—Mr. Ellis, in his Polynesian Researches * gives the following aecount of the matter as observed in Tahiti :— ** The te-a, or archery, was also a sacred game, more so perhaps than any other. The bows, arrows, quiver and cloth in which they were usually kept together with the dresses worn by the archers, were all sacred, and under the especial care of persons regularly appointed to keep them. It was usually practised as a most honourable recreation between the residents of a place and their guests. The sport was generally followed either at the foot of a mountain or on the sea-shore. My house in the valley of Haamene, at Huahine, stood very near an ancient rahi te-a—plaee of archery. Before commencing the game, the parties repaired to the marae, and performed several ceremonies; after which they put on the archer's dress, and proceeded to the place appointed. They did not shoot at a mark ; it was therefore only were made of the light, tough wood of the purau; and were, when unstrung, perfectly straight, about five feet long; an inch, or an inch and a quarter, in diameter in the centre, but smaller at the ends. They were neatly polished, and sometimes ornamented with finely braided human hair, or cinet of the fibres of the cocoanut husk, wound round the ends of the bow in alternate rings. The string was of romaha, or native flax; the arrows were made of | "Xl. e$0 — —— Paruuwrs.—On the Use of Projectile Weapons by the Maoris, 55 small bamboo reeds, exceedingly light and durable. They were pointed with a piece of aito, or iron-wood, but were not barbed. Their arrows were not feathered; but in order to their being firmly held while the string was drawn, the lower end was covered with a resinous gum from the bread-fruit tree. The length of the arrows varied from two feet six inches to three feet. The spot from which they were shot was considered sacred ; there was one of these within my garden at Huahine. It was a stone pile, about three or four feet high, of a triangular form, one side of the angle being convex. When the preparations were completed, the archer ascended this platform, and, kneeling on one knee, drew the string of the bow with the right hand, till the head of the arrow touched the centre of the bow, when it was discharged with great force. It was an effort of much strength, in this position, to draw the bowstring so far. The line often broke, and the bow fell from the archer’s hand when the arrow was discharged. The distance to which it was shot, though various, was frequently 300 yards. A number of men, from three to twelve, with small white flags in their hands, were stationed to watch the arrows in their fall. When those of one party went farther than those of the other they waved their flags as a signal to those below. When they fell short, they held down their flags, but lifted up their foot, exclaiming, wa pau, beaten. « This was a sport in the highest esteem, the king and chiefs usually attending to witness the exercise. As soon as the game was finished, the bow, with the quiver of arrows, was delivered to the charge of a proper person; the archers repaired to the marae, and were obliged to exchange their dress and bathe their persons before they could take any refreshment, or even enter their dwellings. It is astonishing to notice how intimately their system of religion was interwoven with every pursuit of their lives. Their wars, their labours, and their amusements, were all under the control of their gods." After describing the quiver, Ellis continues as follows :—** The bow and arrow were never used by the Society Islanders excepting in their amusements ; hence perhaps their arrows, though pointed, were not barbed, and they did not shoot at a mark. In throwing the spear, and the stone from the sling, both of which they used in battle, they were accustomed to set up a mark, and practised that they might throw with precision as well as force. In the Sandwich Islands they are used also as an amusement, especially in shooting rats, but are not included in their accoutrements for battle; while in the Friendly Islands (Tonga) the bow was not only employed on occasions of festivity, but also used in war; this, however, may have arisen from their proximity to the Feejee Islands, where it is a general weapon. In the Society and Sand- wich Islands it is now altogether laid aside, in consequence of its con- 56 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. nection with their former idolatry.” (Mr. Ellis’ knowledge of Tonga was very slight.) According to Williams,* the bow does not appear to have been used by the Samoans in their numerous battles, only the sling, club, and jagged spear. In Fiji *the bow is sometimes used by women in hard sieges. Fiery arrows are occasionally employed to burn a place into submission. The sling is wielded by powerful hands. I saw a musket which had been struck by a sling-stone. The barrel was considerably indented, and bent nearly halfan inch in its length. Another weapon much used, is the missile club, which is worn, stuck in the girdle, sometimes in pairs, like pistols. It resembles the induku of the Kaffirs, a short stick with a large knob at one end, either plain or ornamented. This is hurled with great precision, and used formerly to be the favourite implement of assassination." Besides the extracts from Cook's J ournal, already given by Mr. Colenso, I think it proper to add the following. Referring to the attack by the New Guinea people, in his first voyage, Cook states :—'* As they ran towards us the foremost threw something out of his hand, which flew on one side of him, and burnt exactly like gunpowder, but made no report; the other two instantly threw their lances." A little further on Cook continues :—* All this while they were shouting defiance, and letting off their fires by four or five at a time. What these fires were, or for what purpose intended, we could not imagine ; those who discharged them had in their hands a short piece of stick, possibly a hollow cane, which they swung sideways from them, and we immediately saw fire and smoke, exactly resembling those of a musket, and of no longer duration. The deception was so great that the people on board thought they had firearms." In Eastern Polynesia, Cook makes but slight mention of the bow and arrow. On arriving at the Marquesas Islands he observed “ a heap of stones in the bow of each canoe, and every man had a sling tied round his hand." The conduct and aspect of the people of Savage Island caused Cook to give it that name. They threw stones and spears. No mention of the bow and arrow. At Mallieollo (New Hebrides) Cook was fired at by the natives with poisoned arrows. At Erromanga he noticed that most of the people were armed with bows and arrows. These people also threw darts and stones. The people of Tanna were all armed with the bow and arrow, darts, spears, slings, and stones. In the attack, when Cook himself fell, at Karakakora Bay, Owyhee, a dagger (pahooa) was the weapon which caused death, and stones the principal instruments of attack. No mention is made of the bow and arrow by Captain King, Cook's coadjutor.1 * Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands, p. 531. t Fiji and the Fijians, by Williams and Calvert, p. 44. $ The dagger (kris) is the national] Malay weapon. . Pamurs.—On the Use of Projectile Weapons by the Maoris. 57 Hardly any reference is made to the bow by Messrs. Tyerman and Bennett; yet a striking fact is alluded to by them. In observing a conversation between the natives of Tahiti, whom they took with them to the Sandwich Islands, and these latter people, they remark “that the dialects of both nations are so nearly akin that the natives can converse very well with one another."* In the Island of Silo (qy. Sooloo), Malaysia, Messrs. Tyerman and Bennett record having noticed the following amusement :—+ ** The girls, who had hitherto been engaged in dancing, now retired, and another company made their appearance dressed like the former (peeuliar dresses). When they were all seated, an old woman entered and laid down at the feet of each, an instrument resembling a bow, with an arrow on the string, about two feet long, laequered red and decorated with gold. The dancers soon afterwards rose, and went through all the evolutions of the others, holding these bows in their hands, which added exceedingly to the beauty and picturesque effect of their groups and attitudes.” The Rev. J. Turner, speaking of arrows, observes in his illustrations of Scripture, * Arrows . . . the poison whereof,” ete.—Job vi. 4:—“ Arrows, so often referred to in Scripture, are still in use in the South Seas, princi- pally where firearms have not been introduced. They are made of a piece of reed, three or four feet long, pointed or barbed, with a bit of hard wood. In the New Hebrides we find them pointed with a piece of human bone, and sometimes dipped in poisonous mixtures from the bush." As a general rule the people of Western Polynesia use poisoned arrows.§ In Asia the bow and arrow is used by the Samoiedes, a people resembling the American Indians, and inhabiting the great Siberian promontory, ending in Cape North; the Khalkas, the most important tribe of the Eastern Mon- gols ; the Buriits and Yakuts (Siberians); the Siamese, who use powerful cross-bows and poisoned arrows for big game; the Andaman islanders ; the Dyaks (Malay), who also use poisoned arrows. I may here be allowed to refer to the use of the sumpitan. The sumpitan is a curious arrow-adaptation. The arrow is blown from a pipe seven to eight feet long. The Kayans (Dyaks) carry the arrows in a bamboo case, hung at the side, and at the bottom of this quiver is the poison of the upas. The arrow is a thin piece of wood, sharp-pointed, and inserted in a socket, made of the pith of a tree, which fits the tube of the blow-pipe. Beyond a distance of twenty yards they do not shoot with certainty, from the lightness of the arrow. On a calm day the utmost range may be a hundred yards. || * Voyages and Travels, Vol. I., p. 378. 1 Vol. IL, p. 214. 1 Nineteen Years in Polynesia, p. 311. $ Murray: Missions in Western Polynesia. || Borneo and Celebes,—Brooke, 58 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. In Crawford’s **Indian Archipelago” occurs the following passage :— * « Among the savages of all nations we find the use of the club, the sling, and the bow and arrow, the first and universal weapons of all man- kind.t To these the Indian islanders add the tube for discharging arrows, which are sometimes poisoned with a prepared vegetable juice. The Balinese are the only tribe, in any degree civilized, which retains the general use of this practice. The more powerful nations have long since given it up, we may presume rather from an experience of its inefficacy, than from any conviction of the immorality or baseness of the practice. The Javanese historians, in rendering an account of a war conducted by the Sultan of Mataram, against the people of Bali and Blamlangan, as long ago as the year 1639, mention the use of poisoned arrows on the part of the former, as an extraordinary circumstance new to their countrymen, and which excited at first some alarm. In the use of the bow and arrow, and the sling, I do not discover that the Indian islanders have acquired any extraordinary dexterity. The Javanese are extremely fond of the exercise of the bow and arrow as an amusement (sitting, not standing, when drawing the bow), but are anything but skilful in the use of it, and seldom succeed in throwing the arrow above a dozen yards. In the attack upon the palace of the Sultan of Java, in 1812, the Javanese threw stones from slings in great numbers, but without inflicting a serious wound, or even dangerous contusion, in the period of two days. The knowledge of iron must soon have in a great measure suspended the use of these less perfect weapons, and given rise to that of the spear and kris. These may be justly styled the favourite weapons of the Indian islanders.” That arrows were once freely used, is shown in the romances founded by the Javanese on Hindu story or mythology.t In Africa the bow is used by the Nubians—whose women twist the hair into the numberless tiny plaits commonly seen among the Western Pacific islanders—the Hottentots or Bushmen who use the barbed and poisoned arrow, and other tribes, authorities for whose names I have not consulted. Livingstone, in one of his works,§ gives the following :— * Poisoned arrows are made in two pieces. An iron barb is firmly fastened to one end of a small wand of wood, ten inches or a foot long, the other end of which, fined down to a long point, is nicely fitted, though not otherwise secured, in the hollow of the reed, which forms the arrow-shaft. The wood, immediately below the head, is smeared with the poison. When the arrrow is shot into an animal the reed either falls to the ground at once, *-Vol Lp: 222. t Note.—This does not appear to apply to the people of Australia or the Esquimaux. ł Crawford: Vol. IL, p. 25. $ ** The Zambesi," p- 466, Puitiirs.—On the Use of Projectile Weapons by the Maoris. 59 or is very soon brushed off by the bushes; but the iron barb and poisoned upper part of the wood remain in the wound. The poison used here, and called kombi, is obtained from a species of Strophenthus, and is very virulent.” ** Another kind of poison was met with on Lake Nyassa which was said to be used exclusively for killing men. It was put on small wooden arrow- heads and carefully protected by a piece of maize leaf tied round it.” (The New Hebrideans wrap a piece of banana or other leaf round the heads of their poisoned arrows.) Further on (p. 556) Livingstone continues :—“ A bow is in use in the lower end of Lake Nyassa, but is more common in the Maravi country, from six to eight inches broad, which is intended to be used as a shield as well as a bow.” To what extent the bow was used in Madagascar, I cannot say, authori- ties being very slight. I shall be glad if any of my hearers can inform me. It is an interesting question, ** the Malagese (people of Madagascar) being a Malay people following Malay customs, some of them possessing Malay eyes and hair and features, and all of them speaking a Malay tongue at the present hour.’’* In South America the bow is used by the Antis Indians inhabiting the Bolivian Andes, who use the three-pronged arrow for fishing, like many tribes in the South Seas; the Pecheray Indians, inhabiting both shores of the Straits of Magellan ; the Tierra del Fuegians, whose bows and arrows were much admired by Cook; the Lenguas, a remnant of a great Indian nation; the Tobas, and other neighbouring tribes of the great Desert, who pieree the lobe of the ear and extend the orifice to an immense size for pur- poses of ornament, like numerous South Sea tribes under the equator, a custom which the Maoris still follow, (many black nations of the Nile pierce the lower lip for a similar purpose, and the Zambesi negroes pierce and extend the upper lip); the Payaguas, the warlike neighbours of the Paraguayan Republic ; and I believe also the Botoeudos of Brazil, who pierce both ear and lip, and enlarge each orifice. The tribes of Indians dwelling near the Amazon were also, I believe, accustomed to use the blow- gun and poisoned arrows for kiling game, exactly similar to those used in Malaysia. The tube was about ten feet in length, and the arrow fifteen to eighteen inches. Generally by the North American Indians, who found great use for the bow for all purposes of war and chase. The Iroquois, Sioux, Commanche, and Crow Indians, all used this weapon, and the Indians as far north as Queen Charlotte Sound. I can find no mention of its use among the Esquimaux, one of the most widely-spread nations of the world, inhabiting a coast-line of over five * Mullens’ ** Twelve Months in Madagascar,",p. 176. 60 Transactions.— Miscellaneous, thousand miles. I much regret my inability, authorities differing so greatly in the origin of this race. Although the natives of Australia are surrounded by savage nations using the bow and arrow, Cook did not observe any such weapons among them, only lances and darts, thrown by hand or with a throwing-stick. I have sufficiently trespassed upon my hearers’ attention, and I must ask to be excused for the length of the paper. It is only by following out the particular customs of savage tribes, and inyestigating the construction of their language, that the cradle of birth of any particular gens can be ascer- tained. I trust Mr. Colenso will, at some future day, favour us with a paper, setting out more minutely than he has even yet done, the manners and customs of the Maoris. A higher civilization is wiping away the habits of a more barbarous time, yet to the ethnological student, these habits, manners, and customs are deeply interesting. Note A. I may be allowed to refer briefly to various matters in which the Maori resembles Eastern Polynesians. The shape and carving of the New Zealand war-clubs exactly resembles those in use among numerous Pacific Island tribes. Their custom of taboo is exactly similar. In the mode of burying the dead, some of their customs, especially that of wrapping the body in mats, were similar. Their method of wearing mats, and working ordinary basket-kits, is the same. Their mode of mourning—cutting the hair and gashing the body—is alike. Their traditions all point to a migration, or migrations at different times, from one or other of the South Sea Islands. Their language is alike. Their great god Maui is but the god of the Sand- wich Islands. Their method of house-building is alike. Also painting the body. The custom of tattoo is more severe (the Marquesas excepted) than in any other Pacific Island, The very word tattoo is similar in many islands (it evidently is derived from the Tongese verb ta, to strike.) The use of the waist-cloth is common. Their adzes are alike, so are their drinking eala- bashes. In the habits of cannibalism they but resemble their ancestry. Their mode of fastening the carved head-work of a canoe to the sides is exaetly similar to South Sea practice. The Church Missionary Society's Museum contains models of single and double canoes exactly similar to those found in the Pacific. Carvings, houses, and all their war-pahs were generally erected upon an eminence. Cruise refers to one erected at Wangaroa situated upon an eminence 800 feet high. I have seen exactly similar forts in Fiji. The word pa or pah is the very word used by the people of the Hervey Group, if I remember correctly. The Sandwich Islanders, in Cook’s days, were in the habit of saluting visitors by crushing - Puriirs.—On the Use of Projectile Weapons by the Maoris. 61 noses, as is still the custom among the Maoris. I believe the Maori used the nose-flute in common with the Tongese and Tahitians :—*'* The scrupu- lous regard which the natives of New Zealand pay to the graves of their dead is equally observed among the Sumatrans, and the native clothing of the latter people is precisely the same, both in texture and material, to that worn by the Otaheitans, and which is made of the papyrus tree."* With respect to the language, Mr. Nicholas remarks :t—'* The subjoined vocabu- lary was eompiled by Mr. Kendall previously to my departure from New South Wales, at which place it has been printed by order of Mr. Marsden, who sent several books of it to New Zealand for the instruction of the children there. The compiler derived considerable assistance from a copious collection of words in the Otaheitan language, with which he was furnished by one of the missionaries who had resided for some years at Eimeo. This collection formed a vocabulary of nearly 2,000 words, the greater number of which had so close an affinity to those of New Zealand that Mr. Kendall found it necessary to make but little alteration in the most of them, and in some not at all. The genius and construction of the two dialects appear to be perfectly the same, and the like identity is observable in the extensive voeabulary of Tonga words collected by Mr. Mariner." ENGLISH. NEW ZEALAND. TONGA. Kotahi Taha 2 ne Kadooa Oo'a 3 Katoodoo To'loo. 4 Kawha a 5 Ka-deema Nima 6 * Ka-hunnoo 0 7 Ka-whittoo oe Fi'too 8 Ka.whádoo Va'loo 9 5 . Ka-hewha Hi'va 10 e Kanghahoodoo v Ongofoo'loo. 20 as Katikow manahoodoo .. Tecow. Note B. It was not at all an infrequent thing, in the good old times, for a great canoe, with its hundred warriors, to leave Tonga and sack a town in Samoa or Fiji, 400 miles distant ; but those times have passed away. The Kerma- decs are only about 600 miles south of Tonga, and New Zealand 800 miles. I have seen many a Tonga man whom I might readily have mistaken for a Maori. This statement also applies to the Samoans. A Samoan fish-hook and a Maori fish-hook are exactly the same, both in form and material, yet this very tool is of a most remarkable plan and construction, so much so that for two separate and distinct tribes to hit upon the like idea is not at all * Nicholas, Vol. IL, p. 287. + Vol. IL, p. 323, 62 Transactions. — Miscellaneous, probable. From my knowledgo of the South Seas, I have often been inclined to consider that the Maoris, Tongese, Samoans, Rarotongans, and Hervey Islanders are all sprung from the same tribe, and that their islands were originally peopled from Tahiti. Often indeed, even now, Tahitian canoes are driven a three weeks’ journey to the westward, or westward and southward, the people, happening to be in them, living upon a few cocoa- nuts as long as such a supply lasted. Also, that Tahiti itself may have been peopled by a migration from the Sandwich Islands, unless indeed these two groups of islands were peopled at one and the same time by a migrating tribe from the parent Malay country. It is, however, a strange circum- stance, that nearly all these islanders claim some acquaintance with Hawii, the principal island of the Sandwich group, the Savii (=Tharii) of Samoa being almost similar in pronunciation, and the Hauraki of New Zealand being a derivative. The Hawaiian mythos pervades the different groups, especially, as I have before said, the deeds of the great god Maui. I might indeed go further, and say that the natives of all the islands of Eastern Polynesia are sprung from the same origin, and in support of this statement I attach a comparative view of the numerals of the different dialects that I have taken from a table compiled by the Rey. G. Turner, LL.D., to which I refer my hearers :—* Sand- New Marque- LB : Raro- Mana- Savage | Union pies Tahiti. Ie tonga. hiki. Samoa. Island. | Group. Tonga. Perd 1| Tahi Tahi |Kahi Tgi Tahi Tasi Taha Tasi | Taha | Tahi 2| Ua Rua ua Lua Lua Rua 3| Tou Toru | Akolo Toru Toru Tolu Tolu Tolu | Tolu | Toru 4| Fa a A a Fa a 2 Wha 5| Ima Rima Rima Lima Lima Lima Lima |Nima | Rima 6| Ono Ono Eono Ono Ono Ono Ono Ono Ono Ono &7| Fitu Hitu |Ahiku |Itu Hitu Fitu Fitu Fitu |Fitu | Whitu 8 Vau Varu |Aualu Valu Varu Valu Valu Valu |Valu | Waru 9| Iva Iva Aiwa Tua Iva Iva Iva Iva Hiva | Iwa 10| Onohu'u| Ahuru | Umi Ngaulu | Launga-|Sefulu | Hongo- | Sefulu| Honga-| Nga- P? pris fulu fulu im 20 Eu'aono- Ta'au |Iwaka- | Eluanga| Takau | Luafulu|Uahon-|Lua- |Luo- | Ruate- hu'u lua ulu gofulu| fulu| fulu| kau 100} Au Umiumi| Lau me Selau Te au Selau | Teau | Rau au 1,000} Mano Mano Ualau |Afe Afe Afe Afe Mano 10,000 Mano Mano Mano | Mano The reason that the numerals of the Union Group (Bowditeh Island) happen to be so exactly like those of Samoa, arises, I believe, from the fact that Samoans colonized the group. The same reasoning applies to Savage Island and Tonga. The only other islanders in the Pacific whose numerals * “Nineteen years in Polynesia.” CorrNso.—On the Moa. 63 approach in similarity, are the Rotumah people and those of the Islands of Niua and Vate in the New Hebrides (evidently colonies driven or migrated from the East). The numerals afford a good example of the language. The dissimilarity between the Hawaiian and the other dialects proves in a measure the originality of the former and the connection with each other of the latter. Art. VI.—On the Moa. By W. Corxwso, F.L.S. Plates IV. and V [Read before the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 10th June, 1878, and 13th October, 1879.] For some time past I have been thinking of bringing this interesting subject before you, and that for several reasons. 1. Because this animal is purely a New Zealand one, and not only so, but it is, I think I may safely say, to be classed among the animal wonders of the world. 2. Because here in Hawke’s Bay (Napier) but little is known of it— nothing indeed when compared with Christchurch, Wellington, and other towns, where also fine specimens of its entire skeleton may be seen in the Museums.* I believe that I may fairly infer, that not a few of you present have not yet heard any account of it—never yet seen any of its bones, save these which I now lay before you, + much less an entire mounted skeleton, such as are in those photographs, now on the table, procured from Christ- church. * Here in Hawke's Bay, during the whole term of my residence (over 35 years), but ery few bones of the Moa have been found, and those singly, scattered, and broken. Nevertheless, on one occasion, about twenty years ago, the men at work on the Middle Road (between Havelock and the entrance to the Kaokaoroa Valley), in making a cutting in the side of & hill, found, either the whole skeleton of a large Moa, or the bones of several all together, deeply embedded among or under the limestone. I did not hear of it until some time after, and, on my Exon: the spot, I found that the whole of the bones had been smashed up and mixed with the clay and limestone from the eutting where they were found; in faet many of them fell to pieces on being exposed to the sun and air. I obtained, however, a few small pieces of the shank of a tibia and of a tarsus, which were of remarkable thickness, I think the thickest by far that I had ever seen. They had been partly converted into a kind of lime, and were wholly as white as the impure lime- stone in which they were found, and scarcely at first sight distinguishable from it. Afew years ago a fine specimen of a tibia, in fair preservation, measuring two feet eight inches, was found near Patangata: this I now have. + These were, a pair each of Femora, Tibiæ, and Tarsi, all from one Moa, found in situ, with other bones, at Poverty Bay, about thirty years ago. The tibie measure two feet five inches each, and the whole are in excellent preservation. 64 Transactions. —Miscel laneous. 8. Because I diligently sought after it, and wrote very early about it, before New Zealand became a colony, in 1838-1842; and yet, though that early paper had been twice published, both in Tasmania and in England, I do not think there is a single copy in the Colony save my own. Indeed, I have failed to procure one at any price in London. 4. Because that early-written paper on the Moa has been frequently referred to and quoted in many scientific works published in Europe and America, as well as by Dr. Von Haast in the volumes of the ** Transactions of the New Zealand Institute” in our Library. 5. Because I have been subsequently repeatedly written to, appealed to, and importuned, both from Europe and within the Colony, respecting what I had published, and also asked to add to what I first made known about it. 6. Because I have, during the past few years, been again seeking from every possible source to gather up anything that was left concerning the Moa. Those are among the chief reasons which incline me now to bring this subject before you. I think you will agree with me as to their validity. I propose, therefore, to divide my paper into two parts—1. What I originally wrote on the Moa (which being wholly unknown to you will be new); and 2. To bring before you all additional information which I have subsequently gleaned respecting it. Part I.—What I originally wrote on the Moa. '* An Account of some enormous Fossil Bones of an unknown Species of the Class Aves, lately discovered in New Zealand."'* During the summer of 1838, I accompanied the Rev. W. Williams on a visit to the tribes inhabiting the East Cape district. Whilst at Waiapu (a thickly inhabited locality about twenty miles S.W. from the East Cape), I heard from the natives of a certain monstrous animal; while some said it was a bird, and others “a person," all agreed that it was called a Moa; that in general appearance it somewhat resembled an immense domestic cock, with the difference, however, of its having a “ face like a man ;" that it dwelt in a cavern in the precipitous side of a mountain ; that it lived on air; and that it was attended or guarded by two immense Tuataras,+ who, Argus-like, kept incessant watch while the Moa slept ; also, that if any one ventured to approach the dwelling of this wonderful creature, he would be invariably trampled on and killed by it. * My first paper was written early in 1842, and published with two plates of bones of the Moa in the “ Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science,” Vol. IL, part 7: this was sub- sequently republished in England, by Professor Owen, in the “ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” Vol. XIV., p. 81, with the above title. T See Note A, Appendix I. Cotznso.—On the Moa. 65 A mountain named Whakapunake, at least eighty miles distant in a southerly direction, was spoken of as the residence of this creature; here, however, only one existed, which, it was generally contended, was the sole survivor of the Moa race. Yet they could not assign any possible reason why it should have become all but extinct. . While, however, the existence of the Moa was universally believed (in fact, to dare to doubt of such a being amounted, in the native estimation, to a very high crime), no one person could be found who could positively testify to his having had ocular demonstration of it; for while with every one it was a matter of the profoundest credence, that belief only rested on the bare and unsupported assertion of others. Many of the natives, however, had from time to time seen very large bones; larger, from their account, than those of an ox ; these bones they cut up into small pieces for the purpose of fastening to their fish-hooks as a lure instead of the Haliotis* shell, it . answering that purpose much better, from its going more equably through the water. It was almost ludicrous, whilst at the same time it showed the powerful effect which this belief of theirs had over them, to witness their unconcealed fear, almost amounting to horror, on requesting them to go to the residence of the Moa to procure it, or to act as our guides thither for that purpose. Unlike, too, what has been very frequently observed in savage nations, this fear seemed not to arise from any degree of superstitious dread, but merely from an abiding conviction of the physieal powers of this prodigious animal; as well as from their belief of the moral certainty of such powers being put into immediate action if they dared to intrude within the precincts of this ereature's resort. As a matter of course, I treated the whole story (so far as related to the present existence of such an animal) as fabulous; looking on it as one more of those many peculiar tales and legends which so abounded in the ** olden time," and which every nation under heaven invariably possesses. I could not but think, however, what an excellent companion for the cele- brated Roct of oriental story and nursery fairy-tale it would have made, had it but been known a little earlier: for, however some few grown-up persons may still delight in reading such marvellous exploits, parents gene- rally, I think, have come to the wise conclusion to prohibit their introduc- tion to the rising generation. On our return to the Bay of Islands, several natives from the East Cape district accompanied us. From them I subsequently received pretty nearly the same details concerning the Moa, as I had given me before when in that neighbourhood. . * See Note B, Appendix I. 1 See Note C, Appendix I. 66 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. In the following year, 1839, the Rev. W. Williams again visited that dis- trict, accompanied by the Rev. R. Taylor. The non-arrival of the vessel by which these gentlemen were to return to the Bay of Islands, which caused them a fortnight's detention at the East Cape), afforded them much more leisure time than I had when there. Mr. Taylor, hearing of this Moa, prosecuted his enquiries, and was subsequently rewarded with the discovery of (what appeared to be) a part of a fossil toe (or rather claw) of some gigantic bird of former days. In the summer of 1841-2, I again visited those parts. At Waiapu I gained the information, that Whakapunake (the mountain where the Moa was said to reside) had been visited by some baptized natives, purposely to ascertain the truth of the common belief; and which they declared to be altogether without foundation ; finding neither cavern, nor lizard-guards, nor Moa, nor any signs of such uncommon lusus nature. But what was of far greater interest to me than this relation of theirs, were some bones which I had the good fortune to procure from them, and which were declared by the natives to be true Moa bones. "These bones, seven in number, were all imperfect, and comprised five femora, one tibia, and one which I have not yet been able satisfactorily to determine. The largest femur, consisting ot the diaphysis only without the processes, measured eight inches in length, and four and three-quarter inches in girth in the narrowest part. The portion of the tibia (which, like the femur, consisted only of the middle part), measured in length six inches, and in circumference four inches at the narrowest, and five inches at the widest part. The still remaining bone, the largest of all, which was merely a section, measured in length six inches, and in circumference seven and a quarter inches in the smallest part. These bones were all (excepting the last mentioned) of a very dark colour, almost a ferruginous brown, and appeared to have entirely lost their oily matter. They were very stout, especially the tibia, and were strongly marked and indented on the outside with muscular impressions. Within, what little remained of the reticulated cells appeared to be nearly perfect. They were all found by the natives in the Waiapu river, and were collected by them for the purpose of cutting-up and attach- ing to their fish-hooks, in order to fish. The portion of tibia which I obtained had been sawn across by the native in whose possession it was, for that purpose. I also obtained several hooks, each having portions of the bones of the Moa attached to it. I could not, however, ascertain, from the smallness of the slips, whether these had been originally cut out of such bones as those I had just procured, or whether they had not been sawn from bone of a different description and larger size. CorENso.—On the Moa. 67 Leaving Waiapu, and proceeding on by the coast towards the south, I arrived at Poverty Bay, where the Rev. W. Williams resided. This gentleman had had the good fortune to proeure a nearly whole tibia of an immense bird, without, however, the entire processes of either end. This bone measured about eighteen inches in length, and was proportionably thick. Mr. Williams wishing to send this unique relic to Oxford, I left a pair of femora to accompany t, in order, if possible, to obtain from that seat of learning some light on these increasingly interesting remains. At Poverty Bay I made several enquiries after Moa bones, but to little purpose, as I could not obtain any. Quitting Poverty Bay, and still travelling in a southerly direction, I soon came within sight of Whakapunake, the mountain celebrated as the residence of the only surviving Moa. As natives lived about its base, among whom my route lay, I looked forward with no small degree of interest to the chance of obtaining some relies of the Moa in this locality ; in this, however, I was disappointed. At the close of the second day's travel we arrived at Te Reinga (a village situated at the foot of the mountain), where, as opportunity offered, I enquired of the natives relative to the Moa. They, in reply to my reiterated queries, said that he lived there in the mountain, although they had never seen him; still the Moa bones were very commonly seen after floods occasioned by heavy rains, when they would be washed up on the banks of gravel in the sides of the rivers and exposed to their view ; at this time, however, they had not any by them. I offered large rewards for any that should be found hereafter, and which were to be taken to Mr. Williams, at Poverty Bay. Here, as at Waiapu, no one person could be found who possessed the hardihood positively to assert that he had seen this Moa, although this neighbourhood had ever been the dwel- ling-place of this tribe. The mountain, too, it appeared was by no means unknown to them ; for, during a war between themselves and the Urewera tribe a few years ago, they had fled for refuge to their stronghold on the top of Whakapunake, where they had lived for some time, and where many of their relatives eventually fell into the hands of the enemy, who starved them into a surrender and took the place. Here, then, was still further proof, if proof were wanting, that no such colossal animal could possibly at this time be existing in this place. The spot, however, was well chosen for the fiction of such a creature's residence: a huge, table- -topped and lofty mountain, covered with primeval forests of gloomy pines; its brow singu- larly adorned with a horizontal stratum of whitish sandstone, which ran continuously and precipitously for more than two miles. At the base of the mountain ran the river Whangaroa, down which we paddled in canoes for some distance. This river is a branch of the Wairoa river, which disem- bogues into Hawke's Bay. 68 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. These natives further informed me that a Moa resided in a certain high mountain in Te Whaiiti district, nearly five days’ journey into the interior, . in a N.W. direction from the place where we now were, and that there I should find people who had actually seen the animal. If I was little inclined to believe in the story of its existence before, I was much less inclined to do so now; however, as my route lay that way, I noticed this information among my memoranda, determining to make every possible enquiry after it. Fifteen days after this I ead at Te Whaiiti, the principal village of that district, and not far from the residence of the second Moa. Here, however, as before, the people had never seen a Mva, although they had always heard of, and invariably believed in, the existence of such a creature at that place. They, too, had not any bones in their possession ; thongh such, they said, were very commonly seen after heavy floods. The following day I passed close by the mountain where this Moa had resided for so many years, but noticed nothing more than usual (although I availed myself to the utmost of the use of my pocket telescope), save that this part of the country had à much more barren and desolate appearance than any I had hitherto witnessed. I returned in the autumn to the Bay of Islands, without gleaning any further information relative to the Moa. It should, however, appear (from information which I have recently received from the Rev. W. Williams), that, very shortly after my leaving Poverty Bay, a Moa bone was brought him by a native, which he imme- diately purchased.. The natives in the neighbourhood hearing of a price being given for such an article as a bone, which they had ever considered as of little worth, were stimulated to exertion, and a great number, perhaps more than a hundred persons, were soon engaged in the field, actively searching after Moa bones ; the result was that Mr. Williams soon had the pleasure of receiving a large quantity of fossil bones, some of which were of an enormous size, and in a good state of preservation. The bones, though numerous, were not in any great variety, chiefly comprising such as I have already mentioned, i.e., those of the femur-and tibia, together with those of the tarsus, the lower part of the dorsal vertebre, and a portion of the pelvis. Altogether the bones of nearly thirty birds, apparently of one species only, must have been brought to Mr. Williams. From the great difference in the sizes of some of them when compared with each other, Mr. Williams came to the conclusion that the animal to which they once belonged must have been very long-lived. Whilst, however, I do not perceive how far this inference is to be correctly deduced from the mere difference in the size of the bones, we know that longevity is common to very many of the feathered Cotenso.—On the Moa. - 69 race, particularly to those of the larger kinds. One of the bones, a tibia,* measured two feet ten inches in length, and was proportionably thick. Two others measured, each, two feet six inches in length. Another, a section of a femur, measured eight inches in circumference in the smallest part. On putting together the bones of the leg and thigh (although none of them exactly fitted), and making the necessary allowance for the portions deficient of the processes of the joints, the intermediate cartilages, and lower tendons and integuments of the foot, we obtain, at least, six feet of the lower extremities of a bird; which, supposing its upper parts to accord in size with the lower ones, must have measured in altitude when alive, at the lowest rate of calculation, from fourteen to sixteen feet—an enormous feathered monster, well worthy, from its gigantic size, of being classed with the Megalosaurus of Buckland and the Mastodon of Cuvier. It so happened that about this time a mechanic, who had been living at Cloudy Bay, in the Middle Island, came to reside at Poverty Bay. He stated that this bird now existed in the high hills near Cloudy Bay ; and that two Americans, residents at that place, hearing from a native that such a bird lived on the mountainous and snowy heights, provided them- selves with arms, and, thus equipped, went in high expectation of shooting one, taking the native with them as their guide. They ascended the moun- tain to the place where these birds resort, where, at the native’s request, they hid themselves behind some bushes. Presently they saw the monster majes- tically stalking down in search of food; they were, however, so petrified. with horror at the sight as to be utterly unable to fire on him. Had they commenced the combat, it is, I think, highly doubtful how it might have terminated. I think it very probable that they would have found themselves in a much worse situation than the Trojan chief and his followers did in their celebrated conflict with the harpies; so energetically and Sopioringiy described by the poet in these lines : — Ære cavo: invadunt socii, et nova prælia tentant, Obsccenas pelagi ferro fedare volucres. Sed neque vim plumis ullam, nee vulnera tergo Aecipiunt." 4 — Zin. lib. iii., 238. * This has been sent by Mr. Williams, with several others, to Professor Buckland. T For the benefit of the English reader, I give Dryden's translation of the passage m thi lah r SE i 4 . * _ . .* Then when along the crooked shore we hear Their clatt’ring wings, and saw the foes appear, Misenus sounds a charge: we take th’ alarm, And our strong hands with swords and bucklers arm. In this new kind of combat, all employ Their utmost force the monsters to destroy.— In vain : —the fated skin is proof to wounds ; And from their plumes the shining sword rebounds.” —Book iii., 311, 70 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. To return ;—they observed him for near an hour, ere he retired, and were glad enough at last to make their escape from witnessing a meal, where, like him of old, instead of eating, they were all but eaten! They described this animal as being about fourteen or sixteen feet in height. The bones from which the annexed drawings* [Pl. IV. and V.] were made, were all found at Turanga, Poverty Bay. They comprise a tibia, a femur, a tarsus, and a fragment of a pelvis and dorsal vertebra of a Moa. They are very stout, are deeply marked with muscular impressions, and are in a good state of preservation. 1. The tibia, which is nearly perfect, measures thirty inches in length, and in girth, at the largest end (where it was much broken away at the edges of the processes, and consequently reduced in size), sixteen and a half inches; at the smallest end twelve and a half inches, and in the smallest part, near the middle of the bone, five and a quarter inches. There are not any remains of a fibula, however rudimentary, attached to the tibia, nor is ~ there any apparent mark of attachment to indicate that such formerly adhered thereto. The largest tibia yet found, in nearly a perfect state, measured four inches more in length than this.+ 2. The femur, which also . is nearly perfect, measures in length thirteen inches; in girth, at the one end over the head of the femur, eleven and a quarter inches; at the thickest end twelve and a half inches; and in the smallest part five and a half inches: the reticulated muscular impressions on this bone are very nume- rous and well defined. I have seen a portion of a femur, the small part of which measured in girth eight inches. The one, however, from which the drawing was taken, though not so large, was more perfect; and it was in consequence of its being so that it was selected for the purpose. 3. The tarsus (a small one), nearly perfect, measures in length ten inches, and in girth at one end nine inches, and at the opposite end eight inches, and in the smallest part four inches; this bone is comparatively very short and flat, and has articulations for only three toes. 4. The portion of the bone of the back and pelvis is not so perfect, being a very much-broken fragment, comprising from the upper and outer edge of the acetabulum to the lower joint of the dorsal vertebra, in which the canal for the medulla spinalis is perfect. This bone, or rather fragment, measures, from the outer edge of the articulation of the head of the os femoris to the outer broken edge of the bone (which is that portion approaching towards the upper part of the bone of the pelvis), eleven inches; and across the inner and smallest part of the bone, immediately beneath the * Drawings of these bones were sent to the Tasmanian Society, and published with the original monograph in their Journal. f I much regret that I had not an opportunity of inspecting the largest and most perfect bones ere they were sent to England. A vessel sailing from Turanga for Port Nicholson, by which opportunity they were sent, was the reason of my not seeing them, CornExso.— On the Moa, 71 last of the dorsal vertebra, where it was most perfect, seven inches. A correct idea cannot, however, be given of such a fragment as this, through the medium of a written description. This bone evidently differs very considerably from such bones in other birds, in its peculiar carinated shape in that portion of it which must have formed the highest part of the lumbar region; it must have been also considerably larger when entire, as the whole of the upper ridge is much broken. This bone is, also, very deeply indented with mus- cular impressions. Having thus given, it is to be feared, rather a tedious detail of the Moa, and of the bones hitherto found, little remains at present than deferen- tially to offer a few remarks on the bones in question, and these suggestions may be noticed under two general heads: Firstly, does the Moa now exist, or, at what period of time is it probable that it existed ? Secondly, to what order or family can we reasonably suppose the Moa to belong ? It is very true that at this time we have but little to assist us in our search; nevertheless, let us commence and prosecute our enquiry, considering such aids as may present themselves to our notice in the course of our inves- tigation at all bearing on the subject before us. Our first enquiry, then, will be, Does the Moa now exist, or, at what period of time is it probable that it did exist? To the first of these queries I reply, that it is my opinion that the species whose bones we have now before us does no longer exist, at least in New Zealand. A few reasons for this opinion of mine I will here adduce. From my knowledge of the New Zealander, I can but believe that there is no part of his native land which has not been at one time or other trod by him, however mountainous or dreary it may be. Asa proof of this, I might mention their having proper names for every portion of land and water, whether hill or dale, lake or running stream ; and their never being at a loss in describing distant or unfrequented parts of their own country, some one or other present among the ‘listening crowd” having either visited the places spoken of, or received a narration from some one who had. Now, as no New Zealander is to be found who can positively state that he has actually seen such a bird, and as every nook and corner of the land is well known to the natives, I conclude that the animal in question no longer exists in New Zealand. In recording this opinion, it will be seen that I pay no attention whatever to the strange and fearful account of the Moa given by some natives, a relation which carries with it its own proof of being false; as I know full well the powers of the New Zealander for romance. The account,too, furnished to the Rev. W. Williams from the two American settlers, I also, in like manner, reject; but only as far as the bird whose bones we have before us is concerned. A very large and peculiar bird may exist 72 i Transactions. — Miscellaneous. in the mountainous districts of the Middle Island ; in fact, we know that several large birds, well known to the natives, though hitherto unknown to science, live on the high hills in the North Island. But I cannot persuade myself to receive one man’s relation as perfectly correct in every particular, against the united testimony of those persons from among the different tribes of the Northern Island with whom I have conversed on the subject.* In thus, however, disposing of that part of the question relative to the present existence of the Moa, we have still to enquire, at what period of time is it probable that this bird existed? And here, I think, we have to consider : first, the situation in which the bones are found ; and, second, any additional evidence which native tradition may be able to afford us. The Moa bones, as far as I have been able to ascertain, have hitherto been only found within the waters and channels of those rivers which dis- embogue into the Southern Ocean, between the East Cape and the South Head of Hawke's Bay, on the East Coast of the Northern Island of New Zealand. And, as I have before observed, they are only, when wanted, sought for after floods occasioned by heavy rains, when, on the subsiding of the waters, they are found deposited on the banks of gravel, etc., in the shallowest parts of the rivers. These rivers are, in several places, at a considerable depth below the present surface of the soil,! often possessing a great inclination, at once perceived by the rapidity of their waters. They all have more or less of a delta near their mouths, from a slight inspec- tion of which it is known that their channels have, in those places at least, considerably changed. The rocks and strata in these localities indicate both secondary and tertiary formations ; consisting, the former of argillaceous schist, sandstone, conglomerate, greensand, etc.; the latter of clay, marl, calcareous tufa, sand, gravel, and alluvial deposits. The real depositum, however, of the Moa bones is not certainly known. For my own part, lam inclined to believe, from a consideration of the depths of the channels of the rivers, and of the class and situation of the prevailing rocks and beds of strata in those parts, that they will be found lying em- bedded in the upper stratum of the secondary, or the lower strata of the tertiary formation; and not, I think, improbably in beds of shingle, the * See Note D, Appendix I. + The rivers at Waiapu and Turanga have high banks on either side, even where the eountry is a plain of rieh alluvial deposit. Near Mangaruhe, and also near Whataroa (three days' journey inland from Poverty Bay), I descended the almost perpendieular banks of the river which falls into the Wairoa, where they were from thirty to sixty feet in height. This height they apparently preserved as far as the eye could trace them from the summits of the neighbouring hills. The Wairoa is a large river which disembogues into Hawke's Bay. * Cotznso.—On the Moa. 78 detritus of the deluge. In this opinion I, with some degree of diffidence, venture to differ from that of a respected and talented friend of mine, who supposes them to be of a much later period, and brought down from the mountains by the winter torrents; but, if they were thus conveyed from the mountains by the waters, the incessant rolling and friction to which they would have inevitably been exposed, would not only have broken off their finer parts, but would have also much battered and worn what remained. In all the specimens which I have yet seen, this, however, is not the case ; for though broken and imperfect, they never appear to have been worn nor battered by friction, nor subject in any way to the action of water. It has been alleged, that it is “in situations beyond the reach of river deposits that the fossil bones of ancient animals are usually found.” Whilst, however, for the avoiding of unnecessary argument, I grant this as a general rule, I would remark, that I do not for a moment suppose that the bones of the Moa are deposited in the beds of those rivers in which they have hitherto been met with. No; they show by their appearance that their place of concealment is not in water; and they equally, I think, indicate that their deposition has been in places effectually excluded from light and air, a fact which is, in my opinion, incontestably proved by the natives never meeting with them but when washed up or appearing on the beds of gravel i in the rivers.. We should not forget that the immense Megatherium was o y dur by M. Sellon on the banks of the Arapey ; and the greater part of an entire skeleton of that animal (which was brought to England by Mr. Paris, the English Consul at Buenos Ayres), was found by a peasant, half covered with water, in the river Salado. From native tradition we gain nothing to aid us in our enquiries after the probable age in which this animal lived ; for although the New Zealander abounds in traditionary lore, both natural and supernatural, he appears to be totally ignorant of anything concerning the Moa, save the fabulous stories already referred to. If such an animal ever existed within the times of the present race of New Zealanders, surely, to a people possessing no quadruped,* and but very scantily supplied with both animal and vegetable food, the chase and capture of such a creature would not only be a grand achievement, but one also, from its importance, not likely ever to be forgot- ten; seeing, too, that many things of comparatively minor importance are by them handed down from father to son in continued succession, from the very night of history. Even fishes, birds, and plants (anciently sought. after with avidity as articles of food, and now, if not altogether, very nearly * The only quadrupeds indigenous to New Zealand are a dog, a small rat, a few Saurians, & bat, and, on the coast, one or two species of seal. [This note is a long one of nearly two pages in the original monograph, describing those animals, I omit it here, —W.C.] 74 Transactions.—M iscellaneous. extinct), although never having been seen by either the passing or the rising generation of aborigines, are, notwithstanding, both in habit and uses, well known to them from the descriptive accounts repeatedly rehearsed in their hearing by the old men of the villages, descendants of ancient days. This very silence, however, I embrace as a valuable auxiliary evidence, bearing me out not a little in my conjecture, that the bones of the Moa will pro- bably be found lying either in the upper stratum of the secondary, or the lower strata of the tertiary formation. In fact, unless we suppose this immense bird to have existed at a period prior to the peopling of these islands by their present aboriginal inhabitants, how are we to account for its becoming extinct, and, like the Dodo, blotted out of the list of the feathered race? From the bones of about thirty birds found at Turanga in a very short time and with very little labour, we can but infer that it once lived in some considerable numbers ; and, from the size of those bones, we conclude the animal to have been powerful as well as numerous. What enemies, then, had it to contend with in these islands—where, from its colossal size, it must have been paramount lord of the creation—that it should have ceased to be? Man, the only antagonist at all able to cope with it, we have already shown as being entirely ignorant of its habits, use, and manner of capture, as well as utterly unable to assign any reason why . it should have thus perished. The period of time, then, in which I venture to conceive it most probable the Moa existed, was certainly either antecedent to or contemporaneous with, the peopling of these islands by the present race of New Zealanders. But we will proceed, and endeavour to ascertain (as we proposed in the second place to do) to what order or family it is likely that the Moa belongs ? In making this enquiry, we have little to assist us but the bones before us; and these, from the writer’s situation in this land, without any known osteologic specimens for comparison, or any scientific books for reference, and also from the bones being so few in variety, will, he fears, afford him but little help. From an attentive consideration, however, of these bones, we are necessarily led to conclude that the animal must have been of large size and great strength ; and from the shortness of the tarsus (when compared with the length of the tibia) we also perceive it to have been short-legged. From its size, we shall naturally be led to seek for its affinities among either the Raptorial or Rasorial Orders; but from its tarsi possessing only articulations for three toes, we are at once precluded from supposing that it belonged to the former order; to which we may also add, first, the negative evidence that not a single specimen or fragment of a wing-bone has yet been found; and, second, the judicious observation of Cuvier (in CorExso.—On the Moa. 75 reference to the family of Struthionida), that it would be morally impossible to fit such heavy bodies with wings sufficient to enable them to fly.* In the latter, however (the Gallinaceous or Rasorial Order), we have the largest and stoutest birds known. ‘These, too, are terrestrial in their habits, some exclusively so, and very often possess only three toes. It is true that in general the different known members of the family containing the largest birds have their tarsi long (whereas those of the Moa, as we have already seen, are short). Yet to this we have exceptions in the extinct Dodo and the Apteryx; and I think it is highly worthy of notice, that the latter, the only known existing genus of the family EE short tarsi, is entirely confined to these islands. From a conviction, then, that it is in this order only = the affinities of the Moa are to be sought with any prospect of success, and that it is in the family Struthionide where they will doubtless eventually be found, we are induced, for the present at least, to place the Moa in that gigantic group. In the absence, however, of a specimen of an Apteryz,t with which to compare the few bones we at present possess of the Moa, I should, I confess, be hazarding an opinion in saying that it was most nearly allied to that peculiar genus; yet when we consider that out of the five existing genera of this family, three at least, apparently possessing the nearest affinities to the remains of the bird before us, belong exclusively to the southernmost parts of the southern hemisphere,] and that a connecting link is, as it were, wanting between the Rhea of the Straits of Magellan, the Dromiceius of New Holland, the Casuarius of the Indian Archipelago, and the Apteryx of New Zealand, and that this connecting link may, in all pro- bability, be supplied in the Moa, I think we shall be constrained to assign our Moa a place between the genera Casuarius and Apteryx, possessing as it does (only in a much greater degree) the immense size and strength of the former, combined with the short tarsi, and probably wingless structure, of the latter. I venture, however, to suppose, that we may gain an additional gleam of light, both upon the probable period at which the Moa existed, and also * The Baron’s words are :—‘ It appears as if all the muscular power which is at the command of nature would be insufficient to move such immense wings as would be re- quired to support their massive bodies in the air." (Régne Animal, Class Aves, Ord. V., Fam. 1.) If such were the spontaneous remarks made by that illustrious naturalist, on contemplating the size of the known members of that family, what would he not have said had he but lived to examine the colossal structure of the Moa ! + It has been my good fortune to have at different times several specimens of the Apteryx in my possession; at present, however, I have not one, nor do I know in whose possession one is to be found in New 1 See Note E, ipp E 76 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. on the family to which it may be allied, by a consideration of the etymology of its name. The word Moa, whence is it derived? I confess, I know not any New Zealand word from which it may be supposed to have derived its origin. And this will seem the more remarkable when we consider that a very great number of New Zealand appellatives are not only derived and easily traceable, but are also generally highly expressive of some action or quality of the thing itself; chiefly, too, is this to be observed when such action or quality is peculiar or uncommon. But in the Moa, the most uncommon animal New Zealand has ever produced (especially in the esti- mation of a native), we have a cognomen which seems an entire exception to the common rule; for, as far as I understand it at present, it has, in reference to this immense animal, no meaning whatever. Further, it may not be amiss also to notice, en passant, that it is of rare occurrence in the language to find anything bearing so very short an appellation as the bird in question. In the Friendly, Society, and Sandwich groups, the term ** Moa” has been, I believe, invariably given by the natives of those islands to the domestic cock, and used as the proper name for that animal by the missionaries there. The New Zealander, in relating his fabulous account of the Moa, almost invariably said it was like a “ tikaokao,” i.e., a cock (they having given the cock that name from its crow, which to them sounded like those letters when drawn out and pronounced after their manner), and that it was adorned with wattles, ete. Without, at all, at present, entering into the question as to what country or countries the existing race of New Zealanders emigrated from to these islands, the popular belief that at least a portion of them is of Malay origin, is, I think, in connection with the name of this bird, worthy of notice; for whilst we know the term * Moa” is used to denote the cock in the Friendly Islands and other groups, it is only in the isles of the Indian Archipelago that the cassowary (Casuarius casoar, Briss.) is to be found; and this bird, too, is ** heavy and stoutly built,” and the only one of the whole family of Struthionide possessing wattles; for, according to Cuvier, it “has the skin of its head and top of the neck naked, of an azure-blue and fiery-red colour, with pendent caruncles like those of the turkey, and is the largest of all birds next to the ostrich.”* May we not, I would ask, be allowed to conjecture, that in that now long-past period, when the forefathers of the present race of aborigines first landed on these shores, a few of those New Zealand birds might still be found in the most secluded and mountainous retreats, having hitherto escaped the repeated inroads of the original inhabitants; or, we may suppose that the bones only were seen, and identified to belong to a bird by those new-comers, to which, from their real or supposed resem- * Vide Cuvier * R2gne Animal," Class Aves, Gen. Casuarius, Cotenso.—On the Moa. Ti blance to those of the cassowary, they gave the name of Moa; the name which that giant bird bore in their fathers' land ? This conjecture, however, may be much more fully established, on ascer- taining the name by which the cassowary is known to the present inhabi- tants of the islands of the Indian Sea. The ornithology of New Zealand, now that these islands are become a British colony, will soon be known; and we may rest assured, that if such an animal exists, it cannot much longer remain concealed. And, it is further to be hoped, that ere long we shall be able to find somewhat more of the fossil remains of the Moa, so as not merely to form in part conjec- tural opinions on its size, habits, and affinities, but so as to be well-assured of what this prodigious creature really was. APPENDIX, I. Nore A, page 64. The Tuatara is an animal belonging to the Class Reptilia, Order Sauria ; but to which of the families composing the same, I cannot, in the absence of books of reference, at present determine. It appears to possess characters common to Lacertinide and Iguanide, in its having the thin and extensible tongue of the former, combined with the undivided one of the latter. It is common in some parts of New Zealand, particularly on rocky headlands and islets lying off the coast. I have one at present in spirits, which I had alive for nearly three of the winter months ; during which time, although I repeatedly tried to get it to take some kind of food, I could not succeed. From its habits I supposed it to be a hybernating animal. It measured nineteen inches in length, had a row of elevated spines (or rather recurved seales) nearly the whole length of its back, and appeared a perfectly harm- less creature. It was taken, with two others, on Karewa islet, off Tauranga harbour, in the Bay of Plenty. The natives speak of another species, haying a forked tail! and also assert that a larger species, which inhabits swampy places, has been seen six feet in length, and as thick as a man’s thigh. The largest, however, that I have ever heard of did not measure above two feet in length. Norte B, page 65. The shells of several species of Haliotis, Ostrea, and other nacrescent genera, are commonly used by the natives inhabiting the isles of the South Pacific for this purpose. A narrow slip of the shell is firmly fastened to the back of the hook, the barb of which is generally concealed by a tuft of metallie-surfaced blue feathers, procured either from the Korora (Apteno- dytes minor) or the Kotaretare (Dacelo leachii). The hook thus prepared 78 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. and attached to a stout line, composed of the fibres of the Korari (Phor- mium tenas), which, after being cleaned from the parenchymatous parts, are twisted together by the hand, is drawn quickly through the water by a person paddling a small canoe ; the larger fish, believing this glittering lure to be their prey, eagerly pursue it, and greedily catching at the same, are taken. In favourable weather a great number of fine fish are soon captured by this method. Among the New Zealanders it is a very favourite sport, and one thatis not alittle animating when several canoes are engaged. I have seen upwards of twenty small canoes thus employed on a fine summer’s evening, on the beautiful sheet of water in the Bay of Islands. I may here mention that, previous to the introduction of the Gospel among the New Zealanders, their hooks were often composed of human bone; those of their enemies being used for that purpose. Sometimes they formed their hooks from the tough stalks and branches of Tauhinu (Pomaderris ericifolia) and Mangemange (Lygodium volubile), hardening them by the aid of fire. At present they invariably prefer the hooks which they make from iron nails to those of our manufacture, the latter, they allege, being much too brittle. Norte ©, page 65. Whoever has read the marvellous ‘‘ Thousand-and-One Nights" must be well acquainted with the monstrous stories related of this extraordinary bird; its celebrity, however, is not confined to that work. ‘‘ Rukh,” says the author of the Arabic Dictionary, ‘‘is the name of a monstrous bird, which is said to have powers sufficient to carry off a live rhinoceros.” To this animal Marco Polo also refers, in his relation of the story of the ambassadors :—‘‘ The rukh is said, by persons who have seen it, to measure sixteen paces across the wings from tip to tip, the feathers of which are eight paces in length, and thick in proportion. A feather of the rukh was brought by those messengers who were sent by the Grand Khan for the purpose of making enquiries respecting it, which feather is positively affirmed to have measured ninety spans, and the quill part to have been two palms in circumference.” The existence of this immense bird seems to have obtained universal credence throughout all the Eastern nations; and while ancient historians make mention of certain enormous and peculiar animals as common to the Orientals, scientific men of modern times have wisely omitted such relations from their nomenclature. Norz D, page 72. After all, it may very possibly be observed by some, that I act rather more precipitately than is consistent with judicious consideration in thus rejecting in toto the whole of such evidence. And such persons may also recollect the hastily formed conclusion originally arrived at by some of the Cotenso.—On the Moa, 79 first Continental naturalists, in reference to the existence of the Apteryz, the Moa's probable congener :—“ L’ Apteryx de M. Temminck ne serait-il pas fondé sur les pièces de Dronte (Dodo) conservées au Muséum de Londres ?” —Lesson, Manuel d'Ornith. ii., p. 211. I do so, however, on the spot, after long investigation and careful consideration of the whole matter, Nore E, page 75. It may not be amiss to give here an outline of the genera composing the Family of Struthionide, seeing they are but few. Each genus contains but a single species. In the present state of our knowledge the group may be thus arranged :— Class AVES. Order IV. Rasorzs, Vigors. Family 4. Struthionida. 1. Genus Struthio, Linn. (Type of the group.) Ostrich of South Africa: possessing two toes. ; 2. Genus Casuarius, Brisson. Cassowary of the Indian Archipelago: three toes. 8. Genus Dromiceius, Vieillot. Emu of New South Wales: three toes. 4. Genus Rhea, Vieill. Nandu of Straits of Magellan: three toes. 5. Genus Didus, Linn. Dodo, formerly an inhabitant of the Isles of Mau- ritius and Bourbon: three toes: extinct. 6. Genus Apteryx, Shaw. Kiwi of New Zealand: three toes and a rudi- mentary one. a. ? ——? Moa of New Zealand: three toes: supposed to be extinct. EXPLANATION OF PLATES IV. anp V. PrarE IV Fic. 1. Tibia of Moa, nearly perfect, 30 inches in length. a, a, girth 164 inches, bone at the end much broken and reduced in size. b, b, girth, over processes, 124 inches, c, €, girth, 5} in allést part. d, deep muscular impressions. e, e, girth, 9 inches. Note.—The largest Tibia yet found measured 4 inches longer than this. Fre. 2. Femur of Moa, T perfect, length 13 inches. J., f, girth, 123 inc g, 9, reticulated oat impressions, very numerous. i, i, girth, 72 inches. k, k, girth, smallest part, 34 inches. m, m, girth, 11} inches. Obs.—I have seen a portion of a femur, the small part of which measured 8 in. in girth! The one from which the drawing was taken, though not so large, was more perfect. 80 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Fie. 3. Tarsus of Moa, BR perfect, length 10 inches. P, p, girth, 9 inch T, T, girth, 4 SURE 8, 8, girth, 8 inches. Prat Fro. 1. Upper surface of fragment of pelvis and dorsal vertebre of Moa; deeply indented with muscular i ss ns. a—b, measures 94 inch c, canal of medulla inal, d, outer edge of acetabulum. Obs.—This bone differs very considerably from such bones in other birds, in its peculiar carinated shape in that portion which must have formed the lower part of the back. It must have been also considerably larger when entire, as the whole of the upper ridge is much broken. Fre. 2, Under surface of Figure 1. a, a, & perfect part of the bone, where, in the narrowest place, it measures 3 inches -way across. b, outer edge of acetabulum. c, canal of medulla spinalis. Part II.— What I have gleaned since. $ 1. Posrrrve (if such it may be called) ! I. Myrus, og LEGENDS. 1. The Myth of Ngahue. Ix all the legends and myths of the Maoris that I have heard recited, and taken down, and received from them in writing (including, also; those pub- lished by Sir G. Grey*), I have only onee met with any mention of the Moa ; and this is in the very ancient Mythe of Ngahue;+ who, it is said, visited New Zealand before the so-called migration hither from ** Hawaiki:’’ there- fore it is that I place this legend first in order. In this legend, which is a partieularly interesting one, the Moa is mentioned twice; but then only in the most casual way—provokingly so! I shall just give here the two short sentences from that original Maori tale ; as I intend translating the whole of this brief legend with explanatory notes shortly. Strangely enough, the translation of this tale given by Sir G. Grey (supra) omits one of those two sentences which mention the Moa, or I would willingly quote from his published translation. Of Ngahue it is said,—that he arrived in New Zealand and visited both Islands ; and on his returning from the South, Arahura (= Westland), and on his way to the East Coast, Whangaparaoa (= Cape Runaway), “he * * Polynesian Mythology," 1855. + Called in the Polynesian Mythology (p. 132), ** The Legend of Poutini and Whaiapu.” RANS. NZ.INSTITUTE.VOL XIL Pl TV Draper Fren: Oripernals dy we. TRANS NZ.INSTITUTE.YOL XILPI V. 4 347 oe z / a EL—————di DT tease. Aus vi Seale- sf Inches. Diretto fom Oripinals à» WC. Corenso.—On the Moa. 81 killed the Moa at Te Wairere."* On his return to Hawaiki he related that ** he had seen the land containing the green jade stone and the Moa." 2. The Legend of the Destruction of the Moas by Fire, etc. A few years ago, while engaged in prosecuting my Maori etymological enquiries for the New Zealand Lexicon, I received the following from an old intelligent chief of the East Coast respecting the Moa :— ** Anciently the land was burnt up by the fire of Tamatea ; then it was that the big living things, together with the Moas, were all burnt. Two Moas, however, survived with difficulty that destruction—but only two; one of these lived at Te Whaiiti, and one at Whakapunake.t The feather of this one at Whakapunake has been seen and found ; it was preserved as a plume decoration for the heads of dead chiefs of note, when their bodies were laid out on a sumptuous bier for the funeral obsequies. The name given to that feather was ko-te-rau-o-piopio (= the special plume of Piopio). The fore- fathers of the Maoris heard of the Moa, but they never saw its body, only its bones." Falling-in lately with an old chief of the Ngatiporou tribe, from Toko- maru, near the East Cape, and enquiring of him, if he knew anything of -the Moa? He replied, “ No; all that was known by them was the old tradition from their forefathers, that the Moas all perished through the fire of Tamatea, save one which escaped to the mountain Whakapunake; where it was said to sit in its cave with its mouth open, and hence to live on air." Here I would observe, that Tamatea is a very ancient name in the New Zealand mythological history, and is frequently mentioned both in their proverbs and songs. It occurs, also, several times with varying suffixes full of meaning in their old astronomical lore (of which more anon). Tamatea is said to be one of the sons (or grandson) of Tato, who, according to some genealogies, was the fifth lineal descendant from the first man Rangi — the sky ; their names are thus given together in one of their old genealo- gies :—“ Now I will begin to rehearse the coming hither of Tamatea, his fathers, and elders ; these are the names of his children, Rongokako, ete. ; these are all the children of Tato."! And these are also said to have come hither in the waka (‘ canoe”) Takitimu. While another genealogy (that of the Hawke’s Bay tribe—Ngatikahungunu), commencing also with Tato, * Probably the cliff and waterfall of that name near the river Waihou, between Tauranga and Matamata. t Vide Part I., pp. 64-68. f I give also the Maori of this, on account of some of the names :—“ Ka timata tenei i te haerenga mai o Tamatea ratau ko ona matua; ko nga ingoa enei o ana tamariki,—ko Rongokako, ko Hikutapuae, ko Hikitaketake, ko Rongoiamoa, ko Taihopi, ko Taihapoa, ko Kahutuá, ko Motoro, ko Te Angi, ko Kupe, ko Ngake, ko Paikea, ko Uenuku,—ko nga tamariki enei a Tato.” 6 82 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. gives his son as Rongokako, whose son was Tamatea, whose son was Kahungunu, and from this man (the founder of their tribe) down to the present generation are just twenty-one generations. In another old story we have the following :—‘* When Tamatea arrived, he burnt up the tangled mass of herbage and scrub from the surface, then it was that man, possessing useful land, dwelt and lived well." 3. Of the ** Feathers,” etc., of the Moa. On my reading the first part of my paper on the Moa,* a discussion ensued ; when Mr. Locke, who was present, said that he had formerly heard when travelling in the interior among the Urewera tribe, a very similar relation from them in reply to his enquiries respecting the Moa; and that he had also heard more than once from the old chiefs on the East Coast, south of Hawke’s Bay, that they had themselves seen the feathers of the Moa, which were anciently used for head decoration. As this, about the feathers and their use, was new to me (as coming from these persons), I lost no time in making further enquiries in that direction, and the following (extracted from several letters) is the result :— 1. (May 7, 1879.) “This is a return to your questions concerning the Moa. I have made diligent enquiry of the chief Hawea and others. At that very time, too (when the letter arrived), the chief James Waiparera was here staying; he had come from his place at Patangata to conduct hither certain visitors from Rotorua and from Tauranga. They all heard me read to the chief Hawea your long letter of enquiries, even unto the end of it. Then they said, to take up each question separately; and this was also done. Then they all, including Hawea, said to me: Write to him (Colenso), and say, No man of old ever saw the Moa ; the last of men, perhaps, who ever saw the Moa, was in the time of Noah ;t because it was at the time of the overturning in the days of (or by) Mataoho} that the race of Moas died, whose bones are now seen. The men of the after times did not (see it); the men also who preceded Wahotapaturangi$ did not see it, down to the times of Te Heheu; and now here also am I, an old man, relating this. All those men never saw the Moa, also myself I never saw it. * Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. XI., p. 568. T This, of course, is from Genesis, and refers to the Deluge. } Thus referred to in the very old legend of Tawhaki :—“ Tawhaki, having recovered from his wounds, left that place, and went and built a fort on the top of the mountain for himself and tribe, where they dwelt. Then it came to pass that the rain was let down from the sky, and the land was overwhelm d, and all men died ; from which cireumstance (that flood) was named— The overturning of Mataoho ; and so they perished.” (See this amplified in ** Polynesian Mythology,” p. 61.) § This was Hawea’s grandfather, who, with his son Te Heheu, saw Cook. Te Heheu died about thirty years ago, old and full of days. CorrNso.—On the Moa. 88 I cannot possibly tell a lie in this matter to thee (emphatic), and say, I saw, or I heard of it. Those men of olden time, as I have said, never saw* the Moa—that is, its body, its size, its length, its height, its feathers—never once. No man ever heard of the taste of its flesh, and of its appearance ; or of its fat, or its skin, or its being sweet or bitter to the taste.! For if, indeed, those men of old had known anything of the Moa, they would have left that knowledge to be talked of and handed down to the men of after times. But inasmuch as those men of the olden time did not know, there- fore it is most certain that these men who came after them did not know also. Again: you enquire, ‘How is it that the Maoris of to-day know these bones which they see to be of the Moa ?' According to my way of thinking, our old ancestors saw those said bones and called them so, and thus it is that we now know them to be such. But no man of old knew anything more of them, so that they knew it (as) food, or the real living appearance of its bones (when clothed with flesh), which are now seen by us bigger than those of a horse! Hawea also says, No man of old before the time of Wahotapaturangi knew anything of the food of the Moa, or of its habitat. This phrase, * the air-eating Moa '(—te Moa kaihau), is only a common pro- verbial saying among us; it is often applied to a man; à man-moa is such- a-one who turns away from his food and lives on air. Again, with reference to the feathers of the Moa, it is said that the feather called the plume of Piopio (Te rau-o-piopio) is from the Moa. When the chiefs of the Maoris die, then this feather is stuck in their hair, and the body so decorated is placed on the raised platform (prepared for it), and the friends and visitors, on seeing it, exclaim, ‘Thou art good (or beautiful), O plume of Piopio !' Here ends what was said by Hawea and his friends, visitors, about the Moa." 2. (July 4, 1879.) ‘Referring to your further enquiries about the feather of the Moa, called the plume of Piopio, Hawea says,—there is no known body whence came this feather; the body in which it had been fixed was that of the Moa at the mountain Whakapunake ; it was a feather from it. It was blown hitherwards by the winds, and, on its being seen, drift- ing, it was picked up. When a chief died, that feather was taken and used for head decoration while lying on the ornamented stage, or bier; and when the corpse was finally borne away, that feather was taken out of the hair and preserved for some other chief who should afterwards die. Hawea also says that the look of this feather was just like that of the Peacock, that it did not differ a bit in its glossiness and variety of colours, in its * I believe the true meaning of the verb (kite), here, is—heard of, i.e., knew from relation; heard it clearly described. + All this is with especial reference to my many separate enquiries. 84 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. length, and in its ocellated appearance ; its great beauty altogether was exactly that of the feather of the Peacock." 9. (July 18, 1879.) “This is in answer to your new and repeated questions to Hawea concerning the said feather called Te rau-o-piopio (—the plume of Piopio) and Te Kowhakaroro; this is what he says :—I will first speak of the body whence came that feather. Ihave heard formerly the old men talking and saying that the Moa fed on air (or wind); that it never walked about, but kept its head always turning. The Moa race was killed through the overturning of the Earth by (or in the time of ) Mataoho ; therefore it is that only the bones are now found. Another saying of theirs, that one Moa only escaped from that destruction, and this one dwells within the cave at the mountain Whakapunake ; but this (saying) perhaps is false, and this is my reason for saying so:—In my time (early days) a travelling party went thither, and I saw how they were teased about it on their return. A feather, however, was found stuck fast on a white pine tree (Kahika), which was brought back. When Matawhaiti died, (the ancestor of Tukuwaru,*) this said feather was stuck in his hair, and it was afterwards reserved for that purpose of decorating the heads of deceased chiefs when laid in state upon the bier. I, myself, saw that feather on that occasion ; and so did (many of) the men of Te Wairoa and of Te Whakakii (in Hawke’s Bay), they also saw it. That one feather bore two names—Te rau-o-piopio, and Te Kowhakaroro. It was like the feather of the Peacock, that is in its ocellated appearance ; very likely if that bird, the Peacock, had been a native of this island, then that feather would be certainly said to be a Peacock’s feather. All those are Hawea’s words.” 4. (July 21, 1879.) ** Shortly after my last letter to you was written, a visiting party arrived here from the neighbourhood of the mountain Wha- kapunake, and we again talked about the Moa, on account of your enquiries. Those men say, in addition to what I have already informed you,—that the famed Moa of Whakapunake bore twelve of those beautiful round-eyed feathers, resembling those of the Peacock. From (signed) Hawea.’’+ Il. Proverss. 1. He koromiko te wahie i taona ai te Moa. The firewood with which the Moa was baked was of Koromiko (Veronica salicifolia ). * An aged chief still living here in Hawke’s Bay. t I have been careful to be exact in making those translations of, and extracts from, Hawea’s letters to me, even to the repeating of some portions, as I wished to give them as I received them ;—it may be for future reference. I had purposed the giving them also - in their original Maori, in the Appendix to this paper. Hawea, being aged, very rarely writes himself, but employs constantly a middle-aged Maori, named Hamuera, to write for him ; who, I know, is to be relied on for accuracy: hence it is that Hawea is generally spoken of in the third person. Cotenso.—On the Moa. 85 This is often said on seeing the hissing sap-like exudation issuing from the branehes of the Koromiko shrub when fired, green or wet; which sap is also said to be the fat, or oil, of the Moa. Note, here, the mode of cooking, as shown by the verb (tao), is that of the earth-oven or haangi; but the koromiko shrub is never used for such a purpose, the wood being much too small. [I may here mention that the late Sir Donald MeLean, who had kindly endeavoured in former years to glean some information for me relative to the Moa, in his travelling in his official eapacity and meeting with the old Maori chiefs, told me that this common saying was all he had met with.] But then a similar proverb, or saying, is also used concerning this very same shrub when burnt green, connecting it with Tutunui, the pet whale of Tinirau (which whale was killed and roasted and eaten by Kaé, as fully related in their myths) ;* namely—* Tena te kakara o Tutunui! — Excellent is the nice smell of (the whale) Tutunui (roasting) ! 2. He mihiau te kowhatu i taona ai te Moa. Mihiau was the (kind of) stone with which the Moa was cooked, or baked. This apparently simple saying has given me a world of trouble. During severalyears I have been enquiring the kind of stone called mihiau, but with little or no success. One intelligent old chief only, seemed to know something about it; according to his statement, a mihiau was one of three sorts of stone anciently used for cutting and lacerating their flesh in times of grief, and death of relatives—waiapu, paretao, and mihiau—and all three were, I think, of a volcanic nature ( Waiapu-obsidian), and therefore could not be used for common baking purposes; besides, their own highly super- stitious fears as to any desecration of the tapu would have prevented their so using them. Has this any hidden, or obsolete, reference to the “ fire of Tamatea” (supra)? which is said to have originated from the country near the burning mountain Tongariro. Further, the name itself is a strange one. Etymologically it means— thy expressed grief after something dead, or gone; mihi = grief, or affection shown after something absent ;+ au — thy, or thine ; and as such the name would be a highly poetical one for a cutting bit of sharp stone used only for lacerating purposes on account of the departed. 3. Ko te hunai te Moa! All have been destroyed as completely as the Moa! Said of a tribe—of a fighting party—of the people of a village—or of a family, when all have been surprised and killed—or carried off by death. * Vide ** Polynesian Mythology," p. 92. t See Tangaroa-mihi, “ Trans, N, Z. Inst.,” Vol. XL, p. 100, 86 Transactions, —M iscellaneous. 4. Kua ngaro i te ngaro o te Moa! All have wholly disappeared, perished, just as the Moas perished ; none left! (A saying similar to the foregoing, and used under similar circum- stances). 5. Na te Moa i takahi te raataa. The Raataa tree / Metrosideros robusta ) was trampled down, when young, by the Moa—hence its irregular growth. (The meaning being, early evil habits are not to be afterwards overcome. “Just as the twig is bent, the tree’s inelined.") 6. Ko te Moa kai hau! Even as the Moa feeding on air ! This saying, which is also very anciént, arose from the belief of the myth that the Moa (the one that had escaped from the universal fiery destruction) resided in a cave on the top of the mountain Whakapunake, with its mouth wide open ; hence it is said to feed on the wind, or air. 7. He Moa oti koe, ina ka kore koe e kai ? Art thou, indeed, a Moa, that thou dost not eat ? 8. He Moa kai hau! A Moa living on air ! 9. He puku Moa! A Moa’s stomach, or appetite ! Those last four proverbial sayings, nearly alike in meaning, are used—(1) in banter of a man in health who has no appetite for food; and (2) of a woman who at meal times cares not to eat, through being very deeply in love—her lover being absent, or his person not agreeable to her tribe and family, and so her affections are crossed, etc., etc. Of this latter we have a notable instance in Hinemoa, the woman whose name is handed down in a tradition of the olden time, as having swum in the night from the mainland at Rotorua to Mokoia, the island in the large lake there, to meet her lover, Tutanekai, the object of her desire. Hence, too, as her people suspected her, seeing she did not care to eat, ete., she got the provisional name of Hinemoa, which subsequently stuck to her ; like many other names of very frequent occurrence among the Maoris, through derision, accident, fault, war, ete. Hine—young lady, daughter of rank ; and Moa—the mythical animal—i.e., the young lady who left her food, or lived on air (just as the Moa), on aecount of her love for her sweetheart. Her name has been given to the Colonial Government steamer * Hinemoa.' There is still, however, another meaning belonging to the words “ He kai hau ;" namely, that it is the name of an ancient malediction or curse used by sorcerers; in which death is invoked on him who makes a practice of receiving gifts without giving any in return, so that he pines away and dies, This, in connection with the mythical ereature the Moa, might some- Cotenso.—On the Moa. 87 times also have had something to do, among such a dreadfully superstitious race, with sudden and unaccountable loss of appettite. This remark, how- ever, can only be fully appreciated and considered by those who well knew the ancient Maoris in their old times of superstitious fear and dread ; when everything which happened and could not be satisfactorily accounted for, was immediately placed to the malevolence of some fancied supernatural demon (atua), or human sorcerer ( kai-makutu ). III. Poetry. 1. In a long and ancient poem, or chaunt, called “the Lament of Turaukawa"—in the midst of many similar references to the oldest Myths and Legends—occur these lines :— —— “ Kua rongo ’no au Na Hikuao te Korohiko, Ko te rakau i jonas. ai te Moa 'À rewa aana hinu. I have indeed heard (from olden aa Seana. That the Korohikot (shrub) was by Hikuao The very tree with which the Moa was roasted When all its fat was melted down 2. A lament, or dirge, over the slain, bacada with these words :— ** Mowairokiroki, ko te huna i te Moa, I makere iho ai te tara o te marama."t Very calm and placid now the raging billows have become, Even as (it were) at the total destruction of the Moas, When the cusps of the new moon dropped off and fell down (to earth). 8. In another song is a very peculiar reference to the Moa, such as I have never heard of or met with anywhere else, except in Hawea’s relation respecting the use of that one feather (ante). The song itself being very short, just one stanza, I shall give it in its entirety with an almost literal translation :— "E! muri koe ahiahi ra, Tango mai te korero, o namata, O nahe rawa, o nga kahika ; E, kei runga riro, Kei a Kahun Ko te manu hou nei e, te Moa, Hei tia iho mo taku rangi."$ Alas! afterwards do thou in the evening hours Produce and begin the talk of old, The story of the very earliest times Of the great ancient men ; Thus let it be, begin with the very beginning of all, * Sir G. Grey's ** Poetry of the New Zealanders,” p. 324. + Korohiko is another name for Koromiko = Veronica, sp. 1 “ Poetry of the New Zealanders,” p. 180. — § “Poetry of the New Zealanders,” p. 133 88 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. With the chief Kahun So that the bird’s plume un present, That is to say of the Moa Shall be stuck into the hair of my principal chief (or beloved one). Meaning, the principal one spoken of, or being now bewailed. I should say (1) that this song is not a very ancient one; (2) that it must have been sung by some of the Maoris of the East Coast, descendants of Kahungunu; (3) that Hawea’s statement throws great light on it; (4) that such a song would be highly suitable, and wholly in keeping with what would be sure to take place, as preliminaries, on the assembling together at the death of a chief,—say, the first day or evening of meeting; (5) that on such occasions the assemblage would begin with their tribal progenitor (Kahungunu) and come down gradatim to the one lately deceased (lying before them), who would thus have the last word; (6) that it is more parti- cularly applicable (from the last two words) as a lament over a young person of high rank 4. Another song from the East Coast concludes with this stanza:— “ Tu tonu Puhirake, ko te Moa kai hau, He whakareinga rimu ki o pou, raia."* Which, as the song is a peculiarly taunting one, may be thus translated :— Poor betrothed beauty, there thou art alone and forlorn, standing con- tinually in the midst of the dense thicket, even as the Moa feeding on air, thy posts (supports or fences) are only for the long, shaggy, ash-coloured, lichen to fly and adhere to, nothing more! : To the Maori those two lines possess a whole multitude of suitable images and ideas. 5. In an ancient dirge-like song, or chaunt,+ of great poetical depth and beauty, and very carefully composed,—often used in times of heavy disaster and death, the old and common proverbial saying already noticed, { (** Kua ngaro i te ngaro o te Moa!’’), is brought in with thrilling effect at the end of the third stanza. Here I may mention that, in 1852, at a season of extraordinary calamity here in Hawke’s Bay, I both re-wrote (a-la-Maori) with variations, and translated into English, this composition ; and on my reciting it, in Maori, before several chiefs who were assembled here from several places in the southern portion of this North Island (one of whom was the late Karai- tiana), I was not a little surprised to find they could all join in many of its parts, including the ending of all its stanzas. I then discovered that it had long been a truly national poem (so to speak), and, like very many others * ** Poetry of the New Zealanders,” p. 96. t“ Poetry of the New Zealanders,” p. 9. 1 Vide ** Proverbs” (ante), p. 86, CoLenso.—On the Moa. 89 of their poetical effusions, altered from time to time to suit the present occasion.* 5 I have carefully gone through more than 900 pieces of Maori poetry, including Sir G. Grey's published collection, some of them very long (and not a few of them written coarsely in a wretched hand) ; indeed, I may say I have laboriously studied them all in the course of many years, and these few lines which I have here brought before you are all that I have been able to discover in them relating to the Moa—just those five small scant and antiquated sentences! There are, however, a few others eontaining the bare word ** Moa," but those are merely references to names of persons, or poetical contractions of other common words having in them those three letters, and possessing little or no bearing on the subject before us. IV. Names or PLACES AND or Men or THE OLDEN TIME WHICH CONTAIN THE Word “Moa.” Of such I have obtained several; but—as I cannot, in a single instance, be sure of the word or term in question strictly belonging to the extinct animal or bird Moa—I shall defer the consideration of this part of my subject to the second (or negative) head of this enquiry. $ 2. Neeative. 1. In all the many legends and myths of the Maori, some of which are of great antiquity—from before the time of their common genealogical period or beginning, commonly known as ** Hawaiki,” or * no Hawaiki "—there is no mention of, nor referenee to, the Moa, save that one solitary and brief intimation I have already quoted.| And yet there were plenty of opportu- nities in them of bringing the living Moa prominently forward, if that animal were then known, or, at all events, of some casual allusion to it, or to their manner of capturing and killing it. As, for instance (among many others), in their several fables of birds, in which the birds converse one with another, etc., as may be seen in the Fable of the Great Battle of the Land and Sea Birds;{ in that of the Hokioi (another large and extinct bird), and the Kaahu (hawk) ; in the myths of the slaying of those several Saurian monsters;$ ànd in the old legends of Maui, and of Hatupatu and his brothers, in which the various birds are made to play such an important part ;— those ancient stories are all silent concerning the Moa. So, again, where in them special mention is made of the food, particularly birds, to be found in plenty in certain regions; such as was said of the chief Takakopiri, in the legend of Kahureremoa—that ** he was a great chief, and had abun- dance of food of the best kinds on his estates ; plenty of potted birds of all kinds (pigeons, and tuis), and kiwis, and kiores, and wekas, and eels;" and (——..* Vide “Essay on the Maori Races :” Trans. N. Z. Inst, Vol. L, p. 47, Essay. | + Vide p. 80, Legend of Ngahue, 1 See Trans. N. Z, Inst., Vol, XL, p. 101. § See Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. XI., p. 87, etc, 90 Transactions, — Miscellaneous. again it is said, the question was asked, * What is the name of yonder mountain ? and they answered, That is Otawa. And the young girl asked again, Is the country of that mountain rich in food ? and they replied, Oh, there are found kiores, and kiwis, and wekas, and pigeons, and tuis; why, that mountain is famed for the variety and number of birds that inhabit wor 2. Further : with reference to the very great use of feathers as ornaments: for the hair, which were greatly prized by the chiefs of olden days, there is also no mention, no allusion, however distant, to any feathers of the Moa in any of their legends ; although there are plenty to the feathers of other birds, sea and land,—both as head decorations and as forming cloaks, for which latter purpose those of the Kiwi were commonly used. And from the now known fact, of the Moa being also a struthious bird and a congener of the Kiwi, and its common body feathers equally as well if not better adapted, being stronger and tougher, for the feather-cloaks of the ancient Maoris. How are those omissions to be accounted for if the Moa were known ? Especially if (as Hawea says) that one feather he had seen was so sur- passingly handsome! In the old Legend of Marutuahu we read of the killing of birds for food in the interior, and of the young chief, who had been out hunting and spearing birds, dressing himself finely in his cloaks and feathers, when, “after combing his hair he tied it up in a knot, and stuck fifty red Kaaka (= Parrot) feathers in his head, and amongst them he placed the plume of a white heron, and the tail of a huia as ornaments ; he thus looked extremely handsome, and said to his slave, Now let us go: for he now appeared as handsome as the large-crested cormorant.” + 9. Their proverbs, too,—many of which are very old—contain no other allusion to the Moa than those few very meagre and misty mythical ones I have already quoted ; and yet they deal largely with all Nature, animate and inanimate, known to the New Zealander; the various animals, parti- cularly birds, coming in for a full share of notice ; of those drawn from birds alone—their natural habits, powers, feathers, appearance, uses, etc., I have collected nearly 70. Here, too, we find proverbs in plenty relating to food and delicacies,—especially to what, being wild, was obtained by hunting and snaring :—e.g.— ** Haere i muri i te tuara o Te Whapuku, Kia kai ai koe i te kai whakairo o te rangi." * « Polynesian Mythology," pp. 262, 264, t “ Polynesian Mythology," p. 250. And, also, that Cook, with his band of Scientific men with him, while they often speak of the quantity and variety of feathers with which the New Zealanders ornamented their hair, mention them as belonging to New Zealand birds they had seen or secured: and those chiefs dressed themselves in their very best CorENso.—On the Moa. 91 —When you travel, join yourself to the company of the great chief Te Wha- puku, that you may eat of all the choicest delicacies (particularly game and wild fowl) ;—which delicates are stated to be (by an old Maori chief com- menting thirty years ago on this very saying) “ birds” (pigeons and tuis) ** potted in their own fat in calabashes, parrots, and ground-parrots (kaakaa- poo), rats, and eels, and berries of the tawa and hinau trees."— Another pregnant omission ! 4. If their old proverbs contained little allusion to the Moa, their old poetry contained still less (as far as is known to me.) And here I may also briefly mention two peculiar quaint poetical ditties of the old Maoris, both being long laments after nice and plentiful food formerly known and eaten ; in which every chief article of pleasant food is severally noticed, together with its habitat. The one being a kind of nursery-song, chaunted to a child while nursing it; the other the lament of the chief Kahungunu (who lived twenty-one generations back), when away in the cold Patea country in the interior ; in both of which, while mention is made of many birds, no allu- sion whatever is made to the big fleshy food-yielding Moa! 5. Moreover, while the ancient Maori possessed charms and spells, and prayers for luck in plenty for everything they did, particularly for fishing and fowling and the snaring of rats; and such, too, varied for every dif- ferent animal whether of the land or of the sea; how is it that there is none for the Moa ?. which must by far have been the most difficult to catch or kill; or, at all events, by far the biggest game of all! Here we have, still extant, those charms and spells for being successful in taking the various birds—kiwi (Apteryx), kaakaapoo (ground-parrot), koitareke (quail), weka (wood-hen), kaakaa (brown parrot), kautuku (white heron), huia (Heteralocha), kereru (pigeon), tuit (parson-bird), pukeko (swamp-hen), parera (duck), whio (blue mountain-duck), kawau (shag), and toroa (albatross)— —besides the various petrels (?) taiko, toanui, titii, and oi; some of those charms being also of great antiquity, and yet there is none for capturing the Moa! This alone has ever been to me an unanswerable argument. 6. In travelling in the interior of this North Island—largely I may say —more than forty years back, I have often had pointed out to me the old land-marks of the game preserves of the ancient Maori, particularly of the ground game—as quail, kiwi, kaakaapoo (ground-parrot), and weka; and the mountain-passes where, in the breeding-season, the tiitii (petrel) was taken in a foggy night by firelight; and also the cliffs on rivers which were smoked and scaled for the fat young of the kawau (shag) ere they were able to fly; even then, at that time, some of those birds had become extinct (as, notably, the quail and ground-parrot), the young men had never seen them, but the old ones had, and caught and eaten them too, in great plenty; and 92 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. while they all knew them well by description and oft-told tale, there was nothing whatever known or rehearsed of the habitats of the colossal Moa, save the mythical dwelling of the only one on the top of the high mountain Whakapunake ! 7. Further still, I think some notice, however slight, should be taken of the great predilection of the ancient Maori towards making pets of wild animals, even including those of the most extraordinary and bizarre kinds, as we may see in their ancient legends of ‘‘ Kae and the Pet Whale of Tinirau,* and of * The Killing of Kataore," the monstrous Saurian pet of the chief Tangaroamihi.t Those stories, however, are both very old and almost prehistorieal. Then we have the account of the tame lizard pet of the chief Kahungunu, named Pohokura, which was carried by him from Taputeranga, in Hawke’s Bay, to Te Awarua, on the western flank of the Ruahine mountain-range, near the head of the Rangitikei river (about twenty-one generations back), and got loose there, and was not recovered. This lizard pet is still believed by the old Maoris to be dwelling in those lonely mountain forests! Captain Cook and other early visitors tell us how very much the New Zealanders were addicted to pet animals; and, in my own time, I have known of their pet indigenous birds—parrots, paradise ducks, twits, ngoiros and karoros (two gulls), huias, and kautukus (those two last being kept solely for their long tail and wing-feathers). They also formerly petted extremely, and made great fuss over, the then newly- introduced animals, as pigs, dogs, cats, and goats.} The tuii (or parson- bird), which was a great imitator and dearly prized by the ancient Maoris, was even taught a song,§ which it spoke tolerably well; of such first-rate talking specimens, however, I have only seen two, and those more than forty years ago. Here again, reviewing the past relative to pet animals, * Polynesian Mythology," p. 90. t ** Trans. N.Z. Inst.," Vol. XI, p. 100. t It was in 1841 that I first visited the Urewera tribes in the interior, at Ruatahuna and Te Whaiiti, near the head of the Whakatane river; and it was on this visit that I saw there (at Mangatepa) the most monstrous goat that I ever beheld! in bulk it was more like a young steer with prodigious flat horns, and was very mischievous. I saw it knock down sprawling big strong Maoris! who, however, generally gave it a wide berth, and so kept aloof. Inside of the fenced pa, or village, it was a perfect pest; for being tapu (i.e., bearing the name of some one of their deceased chiefs), it must not be touched! This ancient custom of the old Maoris of naming their pets after some deceased relation, always insured both its safety (with the tribe) and its being tolerably well cared for ; and if the said pet were at all viciously inclined it was sure to become worse through over- indulgence! I confess I was afraid of that quadruped, and for a long while could not believe it to be a goat! The Maoris, some years a had obtained it from a ship on the East Coast. § The song which was taught this bird is in Prof. Lee's ‘‘ New Zealand Grammar,” p. 109; in its present state it is very imperfect. CoLenso.—On the Moa. 98 one is led to enquire, —Why, seeing we have such a long line of testimony from the earliest times as to pets among this people, why is it there is nothing said or handed down concerning the Moa ?* 8. Lastly, there remain to be considered the several usages, or mean- ings, of this word—Moa, in the Maori language—exclusive of the term as applied to the extinct bird, or rather (by the old Maoris) to its fossil bones ; those may thus be classed :—1. Simply as a common noun for other things. 2. (still in its simple form) as an abbreviation of the proper names of other things, or of states of nature, or of persons. 8. As a name for places, and for men of the olden time, having also a word either prefixed or suflixed. 4. As a compound word used for names of things. 5. Asreduplicated, and also with the causative particle prefixed. (1.) The word Moa is also used for—1. That peculiar kind of boring instrument or drill} with which the old Maoris quickly bored the hardest substances known to them, as the green jade-stone, the thick part of a com- mon black bottle, ete. (this little instrument was also by some tribes called a pirori); 2. For a raised plot, or long ridge for cultivation in a garden or plantation (a northern word); 8. For a coarse-growing sea-side grass (Spinifer hirsutus), which is also called turikakoa,] though this last term more properly belongs to its globular involucrate heads of female flowers, from the old use made of them; 4. For a certain kind of stone; or, for a layer or stratum of stone. (2.) As an abbreviation ; mostly, however, in poetry, and in colloquial language: e.g.— 1. ** Horahia mai ano kia takoto i te aio Moa’ i rokiroki."$ (speaking of a very great calm). 2. For a person :— ‘* Hua atu, e Moa, * See infra, p. 96. t See “ Trans. N.Z. Inst.,” Voll, “ Essay on the Maori Races," p. 15 of Essay; and Cook's Voyages, Ist Voy., Vol. IIL., p. 464. 1 The term *'turikakoa,"—/it. glad, or nimble knees—arises from the use formerly . made of this globular head of flowers when travelling by the sea-side, in going before the wind over sandy beaches, or flats, when the tide is low; one, or more, of them were gathered and pursued with agility and merriment! such a simple device has often served to ile many à wearisome journey on foot, with me and my party. § Sir George Grey's “ Poetry of the New Zealanders,” p. 41. || Grey's Poetry of New Zealanders, p. 15. 94 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. Here, however, this may be the full name; though I doubt it. (8.) 1. As names of places :—e.g., *Te Moa-kai-hau. (See Legends and Proverbs, ante). *Te Kaki-o-te-moa — the neck of the Moa, *Pukumoa = belly, or bowels (of the) Moa. Papamoa = Moa flat; also, Spinifex flat. Taramoa = Moa’s spur; also, Bramble (Rubus australis). *Taramoa rahi = spur of the big Moa. *Hauturu moanui = Hauturu big Moa :—i.e. possessing, or having had there, a big Moa. (There are several places named Hauturu). *Moakura = red, or brownish, Moa. — a — said to be the name also of a bird. tino — big, or fine, Moa or Moas. *Otamoa — Moa eaten raw. *Haraungamoa — Moa, or Moas, observed, or watched, or sought; or, the spot where the skin of a Moa was merely grazed, and it got off. *Tarawamoa = stand, or stage, erected for hanging dead Moa. *Moawhiti — startled Moa, or doubling Moa. *Moawhanganui — Moa long waited for. *Moawhangaiti — Moa briefly waited for. *Moarahi — big Moa. Moawhango — hoarse-sounding Moa. 2. As names of persons :—e.g., *Tawakeheimoa—this may mean, Tawake able to meet a Moa; or, Tawake for, or to be at, the Moa; or Tawake to yoke (i.e. hang, or put, & band, or rope around the neck of) a Moa. *Te Kahureremoa—this may mean, the garment which fell off, or was thrown aside in fleeing from a Moa ; or the garment of the person who ran on to, or over, a bed in a food cultivation (an offence); or the garment which was blown on to it. Rongoiamoa,—the name of one of the men who is said, according to some legends, to have brought the kwmara (sweet potatoe) to New Zealand. I have great doubts, however, of the termination of the word being derived from the animal Moa; it may rather be taken as amoa—carried on the shoulders; although the passive of that verb (amo) generally has the termi- nation hia, sometimes -wia; should it prove to have been derived from the Moa, then of course, it shows its high antiquity. (Those three proper names are mentioned early in their history, and are all found in the two legends of Hinemoa, and of Te Kahureremoa; all three might also have been originally the names of ancestors in the long past !) CotEnso.—On the Moa. 95 *Hinetemoa,—derived like Hinemoa (ante) but having a different meaning. + *Te Awheramoa,—this may mean, to surround a Moa or Moas, through going behind ; or, to relate, or point out, the precise place where a Moa or Moas had been seen. Raumoa = Moa’s feather: also, a variety of New Zealand Flax (Phor- mium): also, a blade of grass (Spinifez). Himoa = ? to fish with a hook and line having a bit of Moa’s bone (fossil) attached as a lure—as the Maoris formerly did at the East Cape. aramoa,—this may mean the same as Taramoa; the k being substi- tuted for t, which is sometimes done. (N.B-— Those preceding names of persons and of places have been obtained from all parts of the North Island.) (4.) As a compound word for names of things, ete., e.g. :— Raumoa,1 Kauhangaamoa, | names of 8 varieties of New Zealand Flax (Phormium). Karuamoa, Hinamoa—a grub in wood, eating and making it rotten, and yet having a fair outside. Rauhamoa—a large bird. me } Bramble (Rubus australis). ataramoa, Tautauamoa—a dispute about a piece of land or bed (moa) in a cultiva- tion ; a quarrel between a few of the same tribe; a private quarrel. 1 Hinetemoa, a lady who lived eleven generations back (and an ancestress of Henare Toomoana, M.H.R.), was the wife of the chief Hikawera, and mother of Te Whatuiapiti, from whom the sub-tribe of Ngatitewhatuiapiti, residing at Patangata and Waipukurau in Hawke's Bay, are descended. On my € ae of the old chiefs of that tribe, why she obtained that name? the reply was: To show her high rank; she being the daughter of a great chief and of a great Bis d Hine—which was joined to that of the one great majestic Moa dwelling on the mountain Whakapunake, there being no other, so—Hinetemoa ! ! 1 Raumoa, being the name for a variety of New Zealand Flax (Phormium), found on the ‘West Coast (unknown by sight to me), and also a name for the leaves of the sea-side grass Spinifex hirsutus, a question here arises: (1) is the eas green Spinifex similar in hue to the said variety of Phormium ? and, if so, (2) could the extinct bird a havo had plumage of a similar colour in the eye of the old Maoris ? (3) the hairy i i and closely growing Spinifex might also have carried a resemblance to the coarse body: feath of the Moa. From strict etymological analogy, I should say, there must have been some- the plant Rauhuia — the plume of the Huia (Linum monogynum), just because it bears its numerous white fiowers at the tips of its branches, so reminding the old Maori of the white-tipped feathers of the Huia (Heteralocha gouldi). 96 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Moai = peaceful, quiet—as the land in time of peace. *Maimoa (v. and n.), — a decoy-bird—as a tame parrot, kept solely for that purpose ; to decoy by means of a tame bird, or bait. This is another highly peculiar word, deserving of notice. The term is composed of two words, mai — hither, towards, hitherwards; and moa — the name of the extinct animal. Is it possible that this word is derived from its very old original use as a term for the decoy for the living Moa? Nothing could have better expressed it. Maimoa — (come) hither Moa; or the means (whatever that originally was) of making the Moa to come towards its hunter or his snares, or the better to secure it. Some forty years ago I found the word largely and comprehensively in use among the scattered Urewera tribes in the mountainous interior ; itis also a general word. *Taniwha-moawhango — a monster having a hollow cry like a hoarse Moa ; or, a monster-like Moa with a deep, hoarse, grating cry. Another very peculiar proper name, a relic of the olden time, carrying almost its own interpretation! At all events I can get no more. I have found only one old chief who had ever heard of the word, and that in his boyhood, but who could not explain it, save that that was the name of the creature, which was much feared (superstitiously). It is said that its hoarse, repulsive cry was heard always beneath in the earth (not unlikely some subterranean noise caused by volcanic action). Curiously enough, there is a river in the Patea country (interior) named Moawhangot (= hoarse-sounding Moa). This river runs in some places very deep below in the earth far beyond the light of day, and there, perhaps, may have a hoarse, hollow murmuring. — Thirty-five years ago I crossed this river more than once on long poles thrown across the narrow surface chasm; I could not see the water below in looking down through the rift ! (5.) As reduplicated, and also with the causative particle prefixed ; e.g. : Moamoa, | Small spherical shining mineral balls, the size of marbles, Hamoamoa, found in the earth in various places ; as (by myself) near Cape Turnagain ; perhaps iron pyrites. 1 : t Vide names of places, ante. ocellated appearance, of that one feather, which Hawea said was a feather of the Moa, and which closely resembled a peacock's tail-feather ? Moa, too, as we have seen, seems to be a kind of generic term for something round, spherical—e.g., the round twirling drill, and the round flowering-headed Spinifer, - Cotenso.—On the Moa. 97 Whakamoa—to make up, or raise a plat, or heap of small stones or of earth ; to make a raised bed of earth for planting, as in a food cultivation, Whakamaimoa—to show kindness to rough, undeserving people ; to make tame, civil. Those several names of places, persons, and things, selected from a large number, would of themselves prove of great service to us in our researches if they could be depended on ; as showing that, in some indefinite period in the far past, they applied to the animal in question. But in almost every case they may mean (or originally have meant) something else ; for some of them may have had reference to a man, or men, named Moa; others (as Papamoa, Raumoa) to the sea-side grass called Moa, ete. It was a common custom with the Maoris (and it is not yet abolished— . indeed, it seems of late, during the last 20-25 years, to have been strongly renewed), to name a child after some ancestor of the olden time, which was. not unfrequently repeated again and again in the course of succeeding generations, as may be found in their genealogical lists of descent —much the same as obtains among us. In some cases, too, the name of Moa, when derived from that of a man of ancient times, may have originally been only a part of his name—the beginning, middle, or ending* of it, as the case might have been—having subsequently had something else added thereto, as is now stil being done by them. Nevertheless I must, in all fairness, allow that it seems to me that such names of places, etc., as Moawhiti, Moarahi, Otamoa, Haraungamoa, etc. (which I have marked with an asterisk in the foregoing list), are derived from the animal in question, viz., the Moa, and that, too, when in a living state. And, if I am right in my deduction, or conjecture, such also serves to carry the age in which the Moa lived very far back indeed in the history of the Maori; as the names of places were before anything else with them, and were also never changed.t And this will the more strongly appear to be the case, for, as * As obtains also very commonly in modern names among the Maoris, e.g : Maa (for Makarini — MacLean) Mue (for Hamuera — Samuel), Neho (for Krona + = Colenso), Tiu (for Matiu = Matthew), Pao (for Paora = Paul), Nahi (for Natanahira — Nathaniel). t I may here give the translation of a letter from some aged chiefs on the East Coast, in answer to my repeated enquiries. It will also serve as a fair sample of many received on the same subject :— “ Friend Colenso, greeting to thee, ete. Listen to what we have to say in answer to thy many questions. We are not sufficient (or i to reply. The reason of our inability is simply this, that our ancestors themselves did not know, and so that want of knowledge has come down to and is with us of the E d It is so just because there was and is but one meaning of those several words [names of places], viz.: the name of the place itself. We know the bones of the Moa from old time; but the reason why such a name (of Moa or relating to a Moa) was anciently given to streams, to lands, to persons, to trees, to plants, this we don't know, we cannot explain; and herein is our great ignorance.” 7 98 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. we have seen, apart from such we have no traces of the animal in question (save fragmentary and mythical ones) left in their language. à Additional Remarks. A few other additional remarks I would also offer; gleaned, I may say, by the way we have come in our enquiry :— 1. The very peculiar names (Rau-o-piopio and Kowhakaroro) repeatedly given by the chief Hawea to that “ one Moa's feather" he had seen:— observe (1.) that such is not that of the bird itself; it is not here called a Rau (or Piki) Moa—the plume or fine feather of the Moa; while such is commonly the case with the feathers of other birds which are prized for head decoration,—which are always named after the bird itself; as, Rau (or Piki) huia—the plume or fine feather of the huia,—Rau (or Piki) kotuku—the plume. or fine feather of the kotuku (white crane),— Rau parera—the plume of the duck, ete., etc. (2.) That the term Rau-o- piopio would properly mean—feather, or plume, of (the bird) Piopio; and there is a bird of that name known to the Maoris ; or, rather, I should say, there are three! all widely differing from each other :—(a.) the New Zealand thrush (Turnagra crassirostris) ;—(b.) a small reddish bird ;—(c.) a bird (unknown to me) said to have been a kind of ground game and largely used as, food, but now extinct !* Of these three birds I only know the first one, having both seen and heard it in the forests on the west side of the Ruahine mountain range, although it is a South Island bird, and but rarely met with so far north as Hawke’s Bay; it is also called by the Maoris korokio, and koropio; by this last name it is best known in these parts. As the first of these three birds (the thrush) is not unfrequently mentioned by the Maoris in their songs, owing to its cry ( piopio), and also in their proverbs, I have made special enquiry, whether the said “ one feather" bearing its name could have belonged to it; but met with a direct negative. Neither have I succeeded any better in all my endeavours to learn why that one feather should have obtained those two long names. (3.) The other term for that one feather, ** Kowhakaroro," has, curiously enough, a peculiar meaning, that is etymologically,—a reference to another bird, the karoro, or large white and brown gull (i.e., it may have had some such meaning). One meaning of the word kowha is,—favourable consider- ation, kind gracious words or dealings, a kind parting word, regret, a gift, souvenir, etc. And the karoro, with its long and melancholy ery, is also mentioned in their legends, as causing them, the old Maoris of ancient * Nearly all that I know of this bird is from a letter from a Maori chief, written in 1873, in which he says:—''The foreigner introduced the dog and the cat, which com- pletely destroyed the food-birds of this island,—the weka, the kiwi, the kaakaapoo, the piopio, and many other birds." CorgNso.— On the Moa. 99 days, to lament when they heard it ;* so that I ean well perceive how those two words put together would form an appropriate name, among such a poetical and imaginative race, for such a feather only so used, viz., the last melancholy parting gift of the karoro. But still this may be fanciful on my part. 2. That “ one feather ” is also plainly and fully described by Hawea as closely resembling the tail-feather of the peacock. Now, here three things are observable :—(1.) That such is not the case with any Struthious bird known, especially with the remaining New Zealand one, the kiwi (Apteryx, sp.); (2.) that, curiously enough, a similar glowing description is also given of another extinct New Zealand bird of large size, viz,, the hokioi ; which bird, however, had been really seen by the old Maoris of the generation just passed away, and by them particularly described. It was said, by an intelligent aged Maori, seven to eight years ago, when writing of this bird :—'* Our forefathers saw that bird of former days, the hokioi ; we of this generation have never seen it, for it has become extinct, but only of late. According to what our forefathers have handed down to us, the hokioi was a very strong bird, especially on the wing; it was very much bigger and stronger than the hawk, with which, however, it was always at feud. Its habitat was on the mountains, never in the lowlands. It was seen by our fathers when flying, on its days of coming down, or flying abroad; but this was not every day, because its home was in the mountains. Its appearance or colour was red and black and white, having plenty of feathers; some of which were also bright yellow, like the colour of the flowers of the kowhai tree (Edwardsia), and some were glistening green, like those of the small parroquet; it had also a beautiful tuft, or plume of feathers on its head. It was a very big bird indeed.” (8.) If that ‘‘one feather" was not a stray feather from the recently extinct bird hokioi, which also lived away in the mountains,+—it may have been a feather from a Peacock, brought hither by those whaling ships from Sydney or Tasmania, which came here often early in this century to refit, etc., and who would have quickly known how very much handsome feathers were in request, both in New Zealand and in the other South Sea Islands; of which, indeed, the barter had been commenced in the very time of Cook,t and of which those who came after him in those seas, of course knew. Here I may also remark, that the old Maoris who first saw the Euro- peans, as a rule, named the new and strange things (especially animals) in * It was the hearing the melancholy wailing of the karoro flying in the Upper Rangitikei River, that caused the chief Kahungunu to burst out into his passionate lament. (Vide, p. 91, ante.) 2 + Vide Hawea’s statement of that “ one feather" having been found in the district, blown down by the wind to the branches of a white pine tree. (Ante, p. 83.) 1 Vide “ Cook's Voyages,” second voyage, Vol. I., p. 318; and in other places. 100 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. accordance with their own ideas respecting them ;* hence they called the horse, the kuri (or kararehe) waha-tangata — the dog (or beast) which carries a man, and this was the name by which the horse was long known in the Bay of Islands, where it was first introduced ; so with the sheep which was called pirikahu (from its wool), and the cat = ngeru; while the fowls, which were given by Cook to the old chief who boarded his ship off Blackhead, on the East Coast,t were called by them (in my time) koitareke pakeha = foreign quail. 8. In the proverbs I have quoted concerning the Moa, the first one runs,t ** He koromiko te wahie i taona ai te Moa;” and I have there said that the verb used in the proverh for cooking, tao (taona, pass.), is that which points out the particular mode, viz., baking in a ground oven; but here it may be observed, that the common verb for burning, tahu (tahuna, pass.), is of similar short pronunciation, and is also sometimes used for cooking, and such may have been originally here intended,§ as we find another analo- gous verb for roasting, scorching, tunu (tunua, pass.), is also used in those few songs| in which the Moa is mentioned; this supposition is further strengthened by what is uniformly said in their legends of its sudden dis- appearance by fire. To this I may also add, that frequently in my early travelling in this country (some 45-46 years ago), my Maori companions, on nearing a pa or village among their own tribe (especially if emerging from a forest near), would call out, * Tahuna he kai,” and “ Tahuna he kai ma matou !” instead of ** Taona he kai," etc., although this latter was intended (Bake some food for us); as the firewood in the ground oven must be first burnt (tahu) before that the food could be baked therein (tao). Conclusion, It will, I think, be seen that I have written exhaustively on this subject, at least I have endeavoured to do so, and that for two reasons :— 1. I wished to tell all the little I knew—all I had subsequently gleaned since first publishing about the Moa in 1842; in hopes of others hereafter following up the quest. * Nor is this to be at all wondered at, for the Greeks and the — did just the same thing to new animals; hence the Greeks named the animal from the African rivers, Hippopotamus (river-horse), and the Romans the Elephant, Lucas bos (the Lucanian ox), because they were first seen by them in Lucania. (Pliny, Nat. Hist., lib. viii. c. 6: Varro, de Ling. Lat.) Iam led to mention this here in a note, because some of our “ superior race" colonists have ridiculed the Maoris for so doing, and in doing so have displayed their own ignorance T Vide Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. X., p. 146. 1 Page 84, ante. $ It should not be overlooked, that it is only of late years the Maori Proverbs, Songs, etc., have been reduced to writing, so that it would be very easy for a writer to make such & slight error as taona for tahuna, especially if METUS LINER HUN Oe old and almost obsolete sayings from the dictation of aged men || Vide page 87, ante CornENso.—On the Moa. 101 2. I have, in so doing, finished my work ; I shall not again write on this topic. For my own part I am, as I have long been, satisfied. My own fresh labours in this direction have only served the more fully to confirm me in my old views* as to the very great antiquity of the living Moa in this North Island of New Zealand. Few, very few, will be fully able to comprehend the immense amount of labour this enquiry has cost me; the amount of time, writing, and patient research consumed would be almost incredible, especially in my seeking _ after ancient names of places and of persons containing the term Moa,—and what a very small result! I have often been led to think of the amount of toil spent in obtaining two dishes for the banquet of Heliogabalus, viz.: of ostriches’ and nightingales' tongues ! and yet all devoured in an hour. n fine, the conclusion I have come to is this :— l. That the bird Moa (some of those of its genera and species) was really known to the ancient Maori. 2. That such happened very long ago, in almost pre-historical times; long before the beginning of their genealogical descents of tribes, which, as we know, extend back for more than twenty-five generations. 3. That this conclusion is the only logical deduction from all that I have been able to gather; whether myth, legend, proverb, song, or the etymo- logical rendering of proper names of places, persons, etc. I will conclude my paper in the highly suitable words of Tacitus, when writing on another celebrated bird of great antiquity, which had given him and other philosophers before him an immense amount of labour—I mean the Phenix. Tacitus says: ‘‘In the consulship of Paulus Fabius and Lucius Vitellius, after a long series of ages, the bird called the Phenix arrived in Egypt, and furnished the most learned of the natives and Greeks with occasion for much speculation concerning that marvel * * * But the accounts of antiquity are enveloped in doubt and obscurity * * * whence some have believed that the present was a spurious Phenix * * These accounts are not entitled to unqualified credit, and their uncertainty is by the admixture of matter palpably fabulous: but that this bird has been at some time seen in Egypt, is not questioned.’’+ Apprnpix Il. 1, Of Dr. Ernest Dieffenbach’s opinion on the Moa. Among the very few early scientific writers on New Zealand, who had themselves travelled in and partially explored the country, I may here * Vide Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L, ** Essay on the Maori Races," p. 58 of Essay. Annals, lib. VI., c. 28, 102 Transactions.— Miscellaneous, mention Dr. E. Dieffenbach, the Naturalist to the New Zealand Company. This gentleman was here in the years 1839-1841, and I had the pleasure of being acquainted with him while he stayed in the Bay of Islands, where, for some time, he lived next door to me. He saw and “overhauled ” all my specimens (even then rich in shells, and insects, and ferns, and in geological samples), and many conversations we had respecting the Moa. In his work, in two volumes, on ** New Zealand," he twice mentions the M. oa, but only in a very slight way; in fact, he, then, could not say any more, for he did not himself collect a single Moa bone, although he was industrious in obtaining all kinds of natural specimens. He saw, however, what few broken bones I had at that time, obtained from near the East Cape through the Christian Maori teachers, who had been sent there by us after our early visit made there in January, 1838. Dr. Dieffenbach thus alludes to the Moa in his work :—“ The natives (of Taranaki) could not understand what induced me to ascend Mount Egmont; they tried much to dissuade me from the attempt, by saying that the mountain was tapu ;* that there were ngarara (crocodiles) on it, which would undoubtedly eat me ; the mysterious bird Moa, of which I shall say more hereafter, was also said to exist there, But I answered that I was not afraid of those creations of their lively imagination,” ete. And again, in writing of “ special changes in New Zealand," he says :—“ If a geological cause, such for instance as a diminu- tion of the size of the island, attended by an alteration of climate and a diminution in the means of subsistence, has contributed to the extinction of the struthious Moa in New Zealand, and of the Dodo in the Mauritius, it is no less sure that, since New Zealand began to be inhabited by its aboriginal race, the agency of man has effected a part of that eternal fluctuation in the organic world, the knowledge of which has been one of the most important results of modern science,’’}+ And this is all he says! Some time after, however (in 1845), we find him reading a paper ** On the Geology of New Zealand," before “ the British Association for the Advancement of Science," in which he says:— That he has examined into all the traditions respecting the existence of the Moa, or great bird of New Zealand, and concludes that it has never been seen alive by any natives of New Zealand ; the rivers in which its bones have been found flow between banks from thirty to sixty feet high, and, as they are continually changing their course, the remains of the Moa may have been derived from tertiary fluviatile strata.”§ (Of course I cannot help thinking the Doctor was indebted to my published paper on the Moa for this information, as it is * Lit., strictly forbidden, or preserved. f “ Travels in New Zealand,” Vol. I., pp. 140 and 417. t At their fifteenth meeting, held June 21, 1845. $ From the‘ Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science," Vol. IL., p. 451. CorENso.—On the Moa. 108 given in almost my very words; nevertheless, if not wholly original on his part, I bring Dr. Dieffenbach forward as a valuable witness, and a sup- porter of my early published opinions). 2. Of the later opinions of Sir George Grey and of Mr. Weld ( with others of lesser note), stated, or adduced, in some of the past volumes of the ** Transactions of the New Zealand Institute." Having read them, I cannot allow this (my last!) opportunity to pass without briefly noticing them. Sir G. Grey is stated to have said that he had heard from the Maoris of their general knowledge of the Moa, and of its recent extinction, in common with some other birds; and Mr. Weld relates of a Maori informing him how the bird kicked like a horse, etc., etc. To me all this is easy enough. From January, 1838 (when I first heard of the Moa), down to 1842, and later, no man could possibly have done more than I did in my quest after it, and no man could have had better oppor- tunities; by enquiry everywhere, personally, in travelling (and I, then, travelled /argely) ; by letters to a distance, in New Zealand, to both Europeans and Maoris; and by Maoris (my own lads), returning to their homes in all parts from our Mission Stations at the north;* and through many others of them whom we had redeemed from slavery and restored to their homes and tribes, and with whom I subsequently long corresponded ;— and, I again assert, that it was through me that the Maoris generally got to know of the Moa having been a real (or common) bird. I showed them, repeatedly, at the station, the plates in Rees’ Cyclopedia,t containing all the Struthious birds, and told them of their habits, etc., and of my opinion of the extinct Moa ; that information was carried almost everywhere (with, no doubt, many additions),—and that information, together with simple leading questions on the parts of the enquirers (especially when put by the Governor of the Colony, or by any superior,—which, according to Maori etiquette, would not be negatived even if wrong){—and, also, with but a small knowledge of the Maori tongue on the part of the Europeans, fully explain all to me, and that very satisfactorily. Here, I cannot help remark- ing, in order to make things clear, that words would fail to show to the colonist of to-day—or (say) of the last thirty to thirty-five years—how highly different it was with the Maori before this Colony was established, and for a few years after; I mean, particularly, with reference to the ‘making of those enquiries. They were carried everywhere throughout the - length and breadth of the North Island; they were the constant theme of conversation among the Maoris, who then had little of a novel nature to * Vide Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. XL, p. 110. t Vol. V., Natural History, plates. 1 Vide Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. L, p. 49 of “ Essay on the Maori Races,” 104 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. talk over,—increased, from the fact of rewards being offered for bones, feathers (if any), and for information. Mr. Travers’ paper (compilation)* I should not care to notice separately, were it not for a letter contained therein, written by my good friend Mr. John White. (I could only wish, in this as in some other matters, that Mr. Travers would write of what he himself knows of things). Some portions of Mr. White’s letter astonish me. For Mr. White had lived at the North among the Ngapuhi tribes many years (just as I had), and to that information said to be obtained from them he adds more—even to a Moa which was “ killed” here in modern times “ near to Waipukurau !’’t where I have also been living nearly forty years!! and where I had con- versed with those old Maoris who saw Cook, but who knew nothing of the Moa! (I fear this Moa “ killed here near to Waipukurau” was much like mine which lived on Whakapunake, or that one mentioned by Dr. Dieffen- bach as said to be living on Mount Egmont!) Yet, not only. this last statement, but nearly all that Mr. White says is equally new tome. Now I recollect when Mr. John White came to New Zealand (a boy); it must have taken him some time to learn the language—before at all events he could talk clearly about such a highly recondite subject as the Moa, not being then particularly drawn thereto—and when talked of, I presume, such was only very occasionally, and then but slightly; whereas with me and others it was a matter of deep, extensive, and persistent enquiry extending over years. Remembering, also, how Dr. Dieffenbach and otherst laboured to glean something about the Moa in those same northern * Vide Trans, N. Z. Inst., Vol. VII., p. 58. t Vide my genealogical note on Hinetemoa, p. 95, ante. 1 Here I should briefly mention a few of those scientific gentlemen who were also in the Bay of Islands and its neighbourhood during those years (omitting mere passing visitors), and whe all through their interpreters zealously sought after any remains of the Moa, now especially coming into prominence; viz., the Antarctic Expedition, under Sir J. C. Ross, R.N., with his several able naturalists (including Sir J. D. Hooker), who wintered there; the United States Exploring Expedition, under Commander Wilkes, U.S.N.; the several French ships of war and discovery, under Admiral Dumont D'Urville, Captain Cecille, Captain L'Eveque, and others; and many other private gentlemen, as Mr. Busby, Mr. Cunningham, the Rev. W. C. Cotton, and Dr. Sinclair, —but whose gains were nil! Through my residing in the Bay and close to the anchorage, I saw and knew them all, and of course had much conversation with them about the Moa, and its history. And last, though not least, there were the many “stores,” or traders settled on shore in various parts of the Bay, who had very extensive dealings not only with the shipping but with the Maoris; who; be it further observed, were now everywhere breaking soil in seeking after the new commercial product, Kauri resin. Those traders would have been sure to have picked up readily any specimens of Moa remains, or any fragments of its past history, —but they, too, got none! . CorENso.—On the Moa. 105 parts before that Mr. White knew Maori,—I confess I feel strange. The only ready solution to my mind is that Mr. White in this matter has been half deceived; that is, he heard something long ago (just as Sir G. Grey and others heard it), and the rest has been in the course of many years evolved therefrom or added thereto, or both. 9. Of the Rev. R. Taylor's statement, which he calls ** An Account of the First Discovery of Moa Remains." * I have often of late read and considered with no small astonishment, what Mr. Taylor has here stated. I could enter into it fully, dissect it, and say a good deal upon it; but, as I have hitherto kept myself from doing so, I will still forbear. This much, however, I deem it right to say (bearing in mind the adage: ** De mortuis nil nisi bonum," to which I would add—vel verum),—1. If Mr. Taylor really made those early discoveries and in that way, why did he not make them known? Like myself, he, too, had been early elected a member of the “ Tasmanian Society,” both of us together in 1841, with the Rev. W. Williams, and other residents in New Zealand ;t soon after which Mr. Taylor wrote a paper on the ** Bulrush Caterpillar of New Zealand ” (Cordiceps robertsii), which he sent to Tasmania, and it was published in 1842, in the first volume of the ** Tasmanian Journal of Natural Beience;"! while mine on the Moa, though written early in 1842, was not published in that **Journal" until 1848, and that in the second volume: my first papers being on some of our New Zealand Ferns. 2. Mr. Taylor says, ** The chief readily gave me the (fragment of a) bone for a little tobacco, and I afterwards sent it to Professor Owen, by Sir Everard Home; this took place in 1839. . . . . IthinkI may justly claim to be the first discoverer of the Moa.’’§ But in Professor Owen's paper on the Moa, he gives verbatim Mr. Taylor's letter to him, which he received through Sir Everard Home ; it is dated ‘“ Whanganui, February 14, 1844 " (five years after!) and in it, Mr. Taylor, in writing of his single visit to the East Cape with the Rev. W. Williams in 1839, on his first arrival in New Zealand, says, (after) mentioning his discovery of Moa remains at Whaingaihu—? Whangaehu, “I have found the bones of the Moa in this stratum, not only in other parts of the Western, but also on the Eastern Coast and at Poverty Bay; from whence in 1839 I procured a toe of this * Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. V., Art. III. t Vide “ Tasmanian Journal," published lists of members. . ¢ In that paper Mr. Taylor says: ‘‘ The Aweto” pete cca only found at the root of one particular tree, the Rata, the femalo Pohutukawa. * * These curious plants are far from being uncommon. The natives eat them when fresh (!) The seeds of the fungus are nourished by the warmth of te: insect," etc., etco.— Tasmanian Journal, Vol. I., p. 307. $ Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. V., p. 98. 106 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. bird."* This, however, is widely different, both as to date (of his first sending to Professor Owen), and also as to the extent of his « find ” at the East Cape. He only specifies the, so-called, **toe," which is quite correct, as I had myself stated in my early published paper ;+ he says nothing here, however, of **the fragment of bone ; nevertheless, he goes much further— actually saying that ** he had found bones in that same kind of stratum at East Cape and at Poverty Bay!” All I can say is: If so, why did he not make them known? Mr. Taylor was well-known not to be at all backward in writing of every thing; and while at the North he had plenty of time to call his own. In this same letter to Professor Owen, (supra), Mr. Taylor goes on to say: “ The Kakapo or Tarepo is about the size of a turkey, and from its habits, nature, and other circumstances, seems so closely to resemble the Dodo, as to lead me to suppose it is the same,” etc. 8. I well remember Mr. Taylor (with whom I was for some time on the most intimate terms of friendship), complimenting me highly on his receiving that part of the “ Tasmanian Journal of Science" containing my paper on the Moa. [Those parts came regularly through my hands for distribution to the members residing in New Zealand, owing to my living near to the anchor- age.] Whenever Mr. Taylor came from the Waimate to the Day, he always , called, and saw repeatedly all my collections, from which he obtained many specimens. Briefly reviewing the past, I cannot but conclude that Mr. Taylor’s memory must have failed him when he gave his last statement at Wellington, in 1872, in which, I think, many incidents of the past relative to the Moa, are jumbled together as to date and sequence ; which, also, from the Editor’s note attached, seems to have been done rather hurriedly. At present I make no further remark concerning the many strange (? erro- neous) statements with which his published works on New Zealand abound ; on a future occasion, however, I may have to notice some of them. 4. Of a remark made by Mr. Vaux, in his paper, ** On the probable origin of the Maori race." * “ Zoological Transactions,” Vol. III., part 4, p. 327. t Vide * Tasmanian Journal," Vol. IL, p. 85; and Dr. Dieffenbach also saw it. At that time, and for several years before and after, I was residing at Paihia in the Bay of Islands, while Mr. Taylor's home was at the Waimate, then a long day's journey inland. io match his “toe” (or claw) to my few bones of the Moa, but it would not fit; at that time Mr. Taylor had none, neither had Mr. Williams. The so-called * toe," which was very black and solid, resembled a bit of water-worn and rolled Obsidian more than any- thing else; yet it might have been a claw; but, if so, greatly worn, and with dull and rounded edges. I only saw it once and for a short time. 1 Asa proof of this, see “Tasmanian Journal of Science,” Vol. IL, p. 244, for an . account of a fine fossil Terebratula (T. tayloriana), which I discovered far away in the interior in 1841, and dedicated to him, CorreNso.—ÓOn the Moa. 107 In justice to myself—if not also to Professor Owen and to Mr. Rule— I had intended noticing a statement made by Mr. Vaux in his above- mentioned paper, in which he says that ** Bishop Williams and the Rev. R. Taylor, in 1839, were the first to discover the remains of the Moa ;"* but, owing to the great length of my paper, Iam obliged to omit doing so; merely saying here that 7 deny it. My grounds for so speaking will be found in what I have already written upon it (supra). Mr. Vaux, evidently, had not seen my early-published paper on the Moa, neither those of Professor Owen, and of Dr. Mantell. "There are also other matters of high importance in Mr. Vaux's paper respecting the Maoris (for which he has mentioned me); to them, I hope to return ere long. 5. Of sundry early English published scientific testimonies. In conclusion, I may be permitted to call attention to the following testimonies in connection with the foregoing; and I do so the more readily because they were all spontaneously given by gentlemen of the highest standing in their respective scientifie pursuits, and written, and published, and spoken of publicly (in lectures, etc.) by them at a very early period. I mean :— (1.) Sm W.J. Hooxer, K.H., ete., ete., the very eminent Botanist, formerly Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew, who, in the London Journal of Botany, for January, 1844, Vol. IIL., p. 8, mentions approvingly my paper on the Moa, and the bones I had sent through him, in 1842, for Professor Owen. (2.) Proressor Owen, F.R.S., ete., etc., the eminent Naturalist and Osteologist, who—both in his papers on the Moa (Dinornis), “ Zoological Transactions,” Vol. III., part 4, p. 327,—and, also, in his kindly and of his own accord, republishing in the ** Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” 1844, Vol. XIV., p. 81, my early paper on the Moa,—has borne a similar testimony. (8.) Dr. MawrELL, F.R.S., etc., etc., the celebrated Geologist and Osteologist, has also done the same, and that, too, at various times; particularly in his work entitled ** Petrifactions and their Teachings,” pp. 98, 94, and 487 ; and also in his very able and lucid paper (doubly interesting to us here in New Zealand), ** On the Fossil Remains of Birds, collected in New Zealand by Mr. Mantell of Wellington," published in the ** Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society," February, 1848, Vol. IV., pp. 225-241 (passim), where Dr. Mantell says :—“ I do not deem it necessary to enlarge on the question whether the Dinornis and Palapteryx still exist in New Zealand; on this point, I would only remark that Mr. Colenso, who was the first observer that investigated the nature of the fossil remains with due * Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. VIIL, p. 11, 108 Transactions.— Miscellaneous, care and the requisite scientific knowledge (having determined the struthious affinities of the birds to which the bones belonged, and pointed out their remarkable characters, ere any intelligence could have reached him of the result of Professor Owen’s examination of the specimens transmitted to this country), has given, in his masterly paper before quoted, very cogent reasons for the belief that none of the true Moas exist, though it is probable the last of the race were exterminated by the early inhabitants of these islands." (Loc. cit., p. 235.) ADDENDUM, Narr, October 24, 1879. I was very much surprised this morning, on finding (and that by the merest chance, in looking into the ** Index, Vols. I.-VIII.") that Mr. Stack, of Canterbury, New Zealand, had some time ago written a short paper containing those passages from Sir G. Grey’s ‘Poetry of the New Zealanders” which I have in this paper adduced respecting the Moa. I had never before this morning seen Mr. Stack’s paper ; no doubt this was owing to its being placed in the Appendix at the end of the volume,* and to its extreme brevity. However, had I earlier seen it, I could not have accepted his translation of those passsges referred. to, still less his remarks thereon. New Zealand poetry and legends cannot be rendered by any Maori scholar in the South Island; besides, their myths and legends are not now to be found there in their integrity ; indeed, such could not reasonably be expected among such a small remnant of Maoris living isolated among settlers. Art, VIL.— Contributions towards a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. By W. Cozzxwso, F.L.S. : [CONTINUED.l] [Read before the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 9th June, 1879.] —— “ For I, too, agree with Solon, that ‘I would fain grow old learning many things.’ ” —Puato: Laches. Ow THE [DEALITY or THE Ancient New ZEALANDER. Parr II.—Proverss ann Proversran Savines. I nave long believed that there is much truth in that compendious remark of Lord Bacon, viz., that ‘the genius, wit, and spirit of a nation are dis- covered by their proverbs.” It is in them, no doubt, that a philosophical mind will discover a great variety of curious knowledge, particularly when - * Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. VIL, Appendix, p. xxviii. t For Part I. see Vol. XL, Art. V., p. 77. Corzxso.—-On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 109 (as in the case of the New Zealanders) the nation has no literature, or, rather, no written records and books. It has been deliberately affirmed by a learned modern writer well acquainted with his subject, that there are 20,000 proverbs among the nations of Europe alone. Many of these have been handed down from ancient times ; not a few from the Greeks, who also borrowed largely from the Eastern nations. Such proverbs were long con- fined to oral tradition (just like these of the New Zealanders) ; for, as it has been truly observed, ** Proverbs were before books." The most ancient, as well as the most refined and civilized of nations, have ever used them, and that effectively. We find them pervading all classes of literature—religious, moral, scientific, historical, domestic, social, and humorous; we find them made use of in the Old Testament from before the beginning of the Hebrew nation; we find their wisest king (with his wise men) compiling a book of Proverbs; we find the Great Teacher himself several times using them in his discourses, and after him Paul and Peter—as is recorded in the New Testament—borrowing them, too, from an alien people. And, in more modern times, Shakespeare, John Bunyan, Swift, Walter Scott, and other British standard writers, have also used them to great advantage. We all know what was Lord Chesterfield's opinion concerning them, viz., ** Never to be used by a man of taste or fashion ;" and possibly that statement may have served to drive them out of polite conversation—in England, at least ; but such was not the Court belief in the reigns of Elizabeth, James, and Charles. The Chinese, the Japanese, and the Hindoos abound in many wise and pithy sayings. The Italians and the Spaniards are still greatly addicted to the use of proverbs, especially the latter; witness Cervantes, the writer of ‘‘ Don Quixote.” How, indeed, could the famous Governor of Barataria have possibly succeeded without them? Proverbs of all nations in common use are not only ‘‘ the philosophy of the vulgar," but they con- tain fragments of wisdom, they are true to nature, and are suited to the people in general by whom they are used. They reveal to us their ancient ways of thinking, and consequently their manner of acting. I have little doubt that not a few of the mottoes of our old nobility may be well accounted for in this manner—something of note in act or word that originated with, or in the times of, the founder. To the ancient New Zealanders, however, the great value of their pro- verbs and proverbial sayings appeared in their oratory, of which they were passionately fond, and in which they excelled. At such times (as I myself have heard them with delight some 40—45 years ago !) their orators, by some well-chosen, some fitting proverb, carried everything before them, winning over their attentive auditory as if they were but one man! In which, no 110 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. doubt, they were ever largely aided by the very genius and structure of their noble Maori language, it being so highly terse, pregnant with meaning, and abounding in paronomasia and antithesis. Not a little has been written on the true definition of a proverb. A modern one of Lord John Russell has caused some noise, and obtains with a large number, viz., ** The wit of one man and the wisdom of many ;" but for my part I adhere to the older and more hómely definition of Dr. John- son, viz., '* A short sentence frequently repeated by the people; an adage, name, or observation." I early commenced collecting the old Maori proverbs, as I saw of what great power and use they were in addressing the Maori people, and I have now more than 1200 (perhaps 1400). I have not, however, sought any for several years, and I have good reasons for believing there are not a few irrecoverably lost, and hundreds stil unknown to Europeans. Lately I have been going over what I had secured (in part for this paper), and I have been again much struck with their appositeness, propriety, and usefulness, indicative of a high class of thought; though stil more struck, in my attempt at classifying them, with their wide range, embracing almost every- thing objective or subjective that could possibly have entered into the mind of a New Zealander. No doubt not a few of them are of great antiquity, as they refer to the celebrated heroes and exploits of the olden time, of the beginnings of their traditionary times; to the legends of their demi-gods, and to animals and plants now and for some time extinct. Here, among these latter, I had long hoped to find something referring to that almost mysterious animal the Moa, something as to its size, form, powers, appear- ance, habits, food, uses, etc., that would have been of real service to us of to-day, but I have sought in vain! True, I have (as I by-and-bye hope to show*) obtained eight ancient proverbial sayings respecting it, but their very abrupt, primitive, and legendary style, and esoteric or hidden meaning, carry it very far back into the night of history! In this, however, we have but another phase of that same oneness of early testimony of the olden time, which (as I have already observed+) we find in their legends and myths and ancient stories ; and, as we shall yet find, also in their songs. Ihave said that I was much struck in reviewing the very wide range whence the ancient New Zealanders had drawn their proverbial sayings; but there is still another more remarkable and noteworthy feature respect- ing them, which I wish particularly to bring before you, and which, indeed, is one of the principal reasons for my writing this paper; and that is what * Vide paper on the Moa VL, Part E t Vide Vol. XL, Part I. of * E E etc.,” p. 83. 1 Vide Part II. of ** Contributions, etc.,” infra. CorzNso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 111 you and almost all colonists of to-day could never expect to find; on the contrary, you would, I am inclined to believe, look for the very opposite. It is, the very large number of their proverbs inculeating industry (both of man and woman, chief and slave); their giving undivided attention to the regular planting and harvesting of their crops ; in favour of perseverance, patience, and endurance; the preference of peace to war; the praise of hospitality and kindness, of deliberation, counsel, and prudence; sound advice to women and to children—to the young men in the taking a wife, and to young women in taking a husband; their openly exposing (even by name !) the mean and stingy conduct of their own greedy, inhospitable, and unkind chiefs ;—also, all cowardly and rash conduct on their part; and against ill-manners, rudeness, and ill-temper ; against laziness, begging, gluttony, slander, grumbling, and lying ; the complaining of trifles and of weariness at work or in travelling. I repeat, I can well imagine you would . quite expect to hear the contrary to all this. Those sayings of theirs—once *' familiar in their mouths as household words "—are strong indications, however, of what the ancient New Zealander really was, and of what good human qualities were prized by him. Referring again, briefly, to the very wide range of their proverbs, the New Zealanders seem to have drawn largely from Nature,—her various works and operations ; clearly indicating that he had been not only a very attentive natural observer, but well able to make correct deductions; for, in addition to those already mentioned, he had proverbs drawn from the regular appearances of the stars, planets, and constellations,—from the varied seasons of the year,—from the several winds and meteors,—from the ever-varying forms and colours of the clouds, and of the rainbow,—from the sea, calm and raging,—from tides and currents, rocks and shoals,— from fountains, rivers, rain, hail, snow, and ice,—from the weather,—from mountains and hills, and from stones, both hard and soft,—from fire and smoke,—from cold and heat,—from times of drought, and of floods, and of overflowing rivers, and from boiling springs and earthquakes. I have attempted to classify them roughly, and I find that:—(1.) From Animals (exclusive of Man) he has derived 150 proverbs and proverbial sayings,— which may be divided thus,—of Mammals (including the Seals, Whales, and Bats), 22;—of Birds (including the largest and the smallest, extinct and present species), about 65 :—of Fishes, both sea and fresh-water, about 80;—of Shellfish and Crustaceans, a dozen ;—of Reptiles and Worms about the same number ; and another dozen, or more, of Insects, including larve. (2.) From Plants and their uses,—including the largest timber trees, and the tiny moss, and seaweeds,—their timber, fruits, edible roots, textile fibres, resins, gums, and scents,—upwards of 70. (3.) From Natural 112 Transactions, = Miscellaneous. Inanimate Objects, and the operations of Nature already mentioned, about 100. (4) From Man,—both chief and slave, male and female, old and young,—the parts of the body, his ailments, infirmities and sins,—his faculties, habits, and great powers,—nearly 100. I also find (5.) that from their Gods, demi-gods, and ancient heroes, mythical or real, they derive above 100 ; and a like number, incidental, occasional, and peculiar, of particular or celebrated men; (6.) from Numbers, about a dozen; (7.) from Artificial Objects,—such as, the House and its belongings, the Canoe (their ship!) and its equipment, —from their many and varied garments,—from war, fishing, fowling, and husbandry implements,— from their artificial paper kites and other games,—from their many Ornaments of greenstone, birds’ feathers, and shark’s teeth,—and from their scented necklaces, anointing oils and various cosmetics, nearly 200; while ( 8.) for love, affection, sympathy nobility and greatness,—kindness and hospitality, industry (both of men and women), quickness, and expertness,—endurance, patience, deliberation, counsel, and advice,—peace not War,—courage and bravery,—and, against ill-temper, ill-manners, and ill-nature, —laziness both of men and women,— weariness and grumbling,—slander, shame, lying, and theft,—begging, idle- ness, and gluttony,—disobedience, fear, cowardice, anger, hate, rashness, and threatening,—superstition and omens, they have more than 200; of which, it may be observed, that by far the largest number are in support of industry, and against slander, gluttony, and laziness—their present three common vices. ‘ O tempora! O mores!” The colonist of to-day—aye, and most, too, of those of the last ten, or even 25-30 years—who have had many dealings with the Maoris, or who have had ample opportunities of observing them closely, will naturally feel a little peplexed at this; as, I fear, their own experience would generally tell a different tale. But it must be borne in mind that the present genera- tion is a widely different one from their forefathers,—inheriting nearly all their vices (with those heavier and commoner ones too surely attendant on “ civilization 1"), and but little of their virtues. The modern settler in New Zealand would be quite prepared to hear of many Maori proverbs and proverbial sayings in favour of war, cruelty, anger, hate, murder, theft, gluttony, sloth, laziness, lying, duplicity, stratagem, over-reaching and over-bearing conduct, the ill-treatment of women, children, and slaves, and of superstition and omens; but of all such proverbs, as a rule, it may safely be affirmed they are not to be found among those of the Maori people. There is something in all this which is of far greater moment than appears at first sight ; which, I have little doubt, will be duly considered in time to come. The question here naturally arises, Were those many pro- verbs and proverbial sayings in favour of the good and the useful—real ? Cotzenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 118 What influence had they on the people? Were they ever acted upon? And here, with reference to some of them, I can personally bear testimony ; especially to those referring to general industry, to kindness, and to hospi- tality ; to quickness, diligence, and expertness; to endurance, patience, courage, and advice; to good manners, and to good temper ;—all these manly and noble qualities I have seen largely practised by the old New Zealander, before Europeans came generally among them. The chief and the lady worked hard and regularly, as well as the plebeian and slave; and as to their hospitality, it was beyond all praise !—not unfrequently giving the whole of their meal (including that of their children), and that, too, in a time of scarcity, and contentedly going without! While ill-manners, ill- temper, and ill-nature,—slander, lying, theft, and disobedience,—idleness, laziness, and begging, gluttony, and anger,—I have not unfrequently heard rebuked with a timely-cutting proverb, and that with good effect. In nearly all those things the Maori has deteriorated fearfully since his close contact with “ civilization,” and his becoming largely possessed of money !—the “love of which,’’* in his ease, has truly been “the root of all evil” to the race! Before, however, that I give you some examples of their proverbs and proverbial sayings, in proof of what I have already said, I would just make two brief remarks concerning proverbs, which alike pertain to proverbs of all countries, viz.: (1.) There are some which are wholly untranslateable, or which, when translated literally, lose their meaning. (2.) There are others, again, which from their very brevity yet well-known allusion in their own vernacular, are without any meaning when rendered into a foreign tongue, and can only be made intelligible by a long and perhaps a tedious translation. The jirst arises from the total want of anything of the peculiar kind whence the simile is drawn in the proverb, being used among the people into whose language the proverb is to be translated. Of what use would sueh common European sayings as, ‘‘As hard as steel," “As heavy as lead," “ As precious as gold," be to a people who knew nothing of metals? Or, such allusions as, “As cold as ice," “As white as snow," be to the inhabitants of the tropics ? Or, such proverbial sayings as, ‘‘ Sour grapes,” ** Great cry, but little wool," * Boy and wolf,” be to a people who did not know anything whatever of the things mentioned ? The second arises from a similar cause, only here it is the peculiar event—the doing or saying—which is wholly unknown to the people into * Lest any should say I have Paul’s well-known and often-quoted passage in my mind (which I have not), I will give a notable passage to the same effect from the Greek tragedians, 500 s.c. :—“ For no such evil institution as money has arisen to men. It lays and to know the impiety of every deed."—SoPHocLES: Antigone 114 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. whose language the proverb is about to be translated ; such as, for instance, the common sayings,—‘ Coals to Newcastle,” * The Greek Kalends,” * Davy Jones’ locker," ** Hobson's choice," ** Nelson's signal," ete. Now all such short proverbial sayings as these absolutely lose their pregnant meaning when literally translated, and can only be understood upon being fully explained. A notable instance of all this took place here in New Zealand, some twenty-five years ago. The ** Pilgrim's Progress," of John Bunyan, whieh abounds in homely and useful proverbs and sayings, was translated into the Maori tongue* by order of the Govern- ment, and the translator endeavoured to render all such sayings literally ! The consequence was he completely spoiled his work,—as the wit, the allusion, or apt turn of such a saying could not possibly be so shown in the translation. He might, however, if he had known them sufficiently well, have supplied, in many places, similar and suitable Maori proverbs in their stead. And this will be found to be more or less the case in all languages. Still, the rendering of any of the various European proverbs into another European or Western-Asiatie language than its own vernacular is not so difficult, at all events not under the first head, because the animals, plants, metals, and things in general, and their uses, are either the same or well known; indeed, it is sometimes a difficult matter to ascertain whence the proverb originally sprang—with the English, the Irish, the Welsh, or the Scotch, or with the British, the French or the German, etc.—seeing such have ever been alike used by all;+ but such a thing can never happen with any Maori proverb, which, however much resembling a European one, must be original ;—while, under the second head, many of them when translated into another European tongue are pretty well understood. But the very contrary of all this is the case in the endeavour to render our English proverbs into Maori, or the Maori proverbs into English. Hence, it will be observed that by far the larger number of the short, sharp, witty, pungent, and popular ones of the Maori, having no equivalents, cannot be readily rendered into English, and, therefore, must necessarily be omitted by me on this occasion. * Though a far better translation of the same work had been made nearly twenty years before, by a skilled Maori scholar; this translation, in MS., I have still by me. + As, for instance :—“ A'are no frien's that speak fair to you" (S.), * All are not friends that speak us fair” (E.); “ As the auld cock craws, the young ane learns " (S.), “ As the old cock crows, the young one learns” (E.) ; ** As the old cock crows, the young bird ehirrups" (I). Again, “ To carry coals to Newcastle” (E. “To carry saut to Dysart” (S.), “ To send water to the sea” (French and German), ** To send fir to Norway" (Dutch), are all one and the same proverb as to meaning but which is the original? CorENso.— On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 115 Once for all, I may say that, in translating those ancient proverbs aud proverbial sayings which I now bring before you, I have studied accuracy before elegance, endeavouring also, at the same time (as far as the differing idioms of the two languages will allow), to preserve much of the manner in which the pregnant thought was originally expressed; such being just as important as the thought itself. In the original, the expressions are arranged for the most part antithetically in distichs, like the Proverbs of Solomon, and, not unfrequently, poetically ; and are truly rich in images borrowed from the whole world of Nature. MAORI PROVERBS, ETO. I. RELATING To INDUSTRY. 1, He tangata momoe, he tangata mangere, ekore e whiwhi ki te taonga. A sleepy-headed lazy fellow will never possess riches. Resembling some in the Proverbs of Solomon. He kai kei aku ringaringa. I can earn my food with my own hands. Lit. I have food in my hands ; or in the use of my hands. . Tama tu, tama ora ; tama noho, tama matekai. The working chief (or son) flourishes; the idle chief wants food. Lit. Standing chief—living chief; squatting chief—hungry chief. He kai tangata, he kai titongitongi kaki ; He kai na tona ringa, tino kai tino makona noa, Food from another is little and stinging to the throat ; Food of a man’s own getting, is plentiful and sweet, and satisfying. . He panehe toki ka tu te tangitangi kai. A little axe well-used brings heaps of food. This reminds one of the Persian proverb :—‘‘ In time the mulberry leaf becomes satin." To have plenty of food for hospitable purposes was the greatest of all things with a New Zealand phiof a as nothing raised them and their tribe more in the estimation of all. 6. Takoto kau ana te whanau o Taane ! The forest is felled (for planting), the hard work is done. Lit. The children of Taane are lying prostrate.—T'aane being the god of woods and forests, the trees were called his children or offspring. 7. Tena te ringa tango parahia ! Well-done the hand that roots up weeds ! Applied to a steady worker in root-crop plantations. Parahia, alow-. spreading weed (Ctenopodium pusillum), is particularly plentiful at Taupo. 8. He mate kai e rokohanga, he mate anu ekore e rokohanga. Hunger can be remedied, not so the want of warm clothing. jo e » or 116 Transactions.— Miscellaneous, Lit. Famine can be overtaken, sharp feeling of bitter cold can not be overtaken. N.B.—Here, bear in mind, that all the garments of the New Zealanders, whether made from their flax fibres, or the skins of their dogs, took them a very long time to make; and the majority were but poorly clothed. 9. He toa taua, mate taua ; he toa piki pari, mate pari ; he toa ngaki kai, ma te huhu tena. The warrior is killed in war; the fearless scaler of lofty cliffs (in search of sea-fowl) is dashed to pieces; the industrious hus- bandman lives long and dies peacefully of old age. Lit. The hero dies in fight; the climber of precipices by a fall; the cultivator of food by worms—meaning old age, or gradual decay. N.B.—This bears out Cook's statement: Vol. IIL, pp. 460,461. Here is another of similar meaning :— : 10. He.toa paheke te toa taua ; lena ko te toa mahi kai ekore e paheke. The warrior stands on insecure footing (or slippery is the fame of . the warrior); but the industrious cultivator of land will never slip or fall. 11. Ma pango ma whero ka oti. Through chief and slave working together with a will the work will be done. Lit. By black (and) by red finished. The slaves and plebeians, naked and unwashed, were black enough; the chiefs used red pigment to anoint themselves. 12. Maramara nui a Mahi ka riro i a Noho. The big chips are hewn off by Worker, but the food is taken and eaten by Looker-on, or Do-nothing, or Idler. Lit. Worker (has) big chips gone with Squatter ! This proverb is so cleverly constructed as not to give offence to a highly- sensitive race, with whom a cross word, or gesture, or look, respecting food, was quite enough to cause serious disturbance: here, however, so much has to be inferred—“ If the cap fits wear it.” This is used when men are hard at work hewing timber for a canoe, house, etc. ; at which time some are sure to be idly squatting-by looking-on ; and when the cooked food for the workmen is brought in baskets, those squatters are often the first to fall-to; and to this, also, no exception can be taken ! 18. Kahore he tarainga tahere i te ara! You eannot hew a bird-spear by the way. Meaning: Without timely preparation you may die for want of food. Birds were formerly speared in great numbers in the woods; but to make a proper bird-spear took a long time, and (to me) was one of the wonders of old ! Cotenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 117 14. Ka mate kaainga tahi, ka ora kaainga rua. Through having only one cultivation the man dies from want, through two he lives. Lit. One place death (or want), two places life (or good living.) This was carried out fully by the New Zealanders, as to food cultiva- tions, houses, bird-preserves, eel-weirs, fishing-grounds, etc., not only that they might have plenty, but so as to secure some from being carried off by their foes, in time of feuds, often happening. Another similar proverb ran— 15. Ka mate whare tahi, ka ora whare rua. With one house, want; with two houses, plenty. The meaning being much the same, only more applicable to the chief having two wives, who, each in her own house, wove garments. 16. I whea koe i te ngahorotanga o te rau o te kotukutuku ? Meaning: Where wert thou in the time of work,—or of danger ? Lit. Where wert thou in the falling of the leaves of the kotukutuku ? This tree (Fuchsia excorticata) is the only one in New Zealand which is really deciduous. This proverb may also be used for many other pur- poses ; as,— When in siege or battle your tribe or people were killed, where were you? absent or hiding? Meaning, Is it meet for thee to boast, find fault, or speak? At such times it is a very cutting sarcasm ; often causing intense feeling. 17. I hea koe i te tangihanga o te riroriro ? Where wert thou at the crying of the riroriro bird ? The riroriro (Gerygone flaviventris) cries in the early spring, the season for preparing cultivations for crops; so this proverb is used to a lazy or careless person who is without cultivated food, especially when begging ; and it causes great shame. It is not unlike in meaning to the western fable of the Ant and Grasshopper. 18. Ko te tokanga nui a Noho. The peaceful dweller at home has always a thumping big basket of food to eat. Lit. The big basket of Stay-at-home. ` N.B.—Here it should be observed that the dweller at home is merely named Noho, = to sit down, to dwell quietly: of course such a one is not supposed to be idle. 19. He wha tawhara ki uta, he kiko tamure ki tai. Inland is the tawhara fruit; in the sea, the flesh of the snapper. Meaning: Sweet food for man is everywhere, in land and water, by exertion. The tawhara is the large sweet sugary flower bract of the kiekie (Freycinetia banksii), generally found plentifully in the white pine forests, 118 Transactions.— Miscellaneous, and formerly eaten abundantly. The tamure is the snapper dien uni- color), a common fish on all the coasts. 20. Whana atu poho ki roto, haere mai taiki ki waho ; nohoia te whare, ko te hee tonu. Inward goes the pit of the stomach, outward come the ribs (from) persistently sticking in-doors, the greatest of all ills. This is a highly ludicrous proverb ; the joke, or point, being largely increased through the play on the three verbs,—to recede, to come hither, and to squat idly in-doors; or, increased as it is in the passive,—to remain within to support the house! It is used in times of cold and hunger, showing their effects: “ Too cold to go out," ** Too hungry to remain in-doors without food, yet keeping house !—squatting idly, or doing nothing !" 21. Te wahie ka waia mo takurua, te kai ka mahia mo tau. Firewood is sought for winter, food is laboured after for the year. Meaning: Be usefully employed. 22. Te toto o te tangata, he kai ; te oranga o te tangata, he whenua. The blood of man (is from) food, the sustenance of man (is from) and. Meaning: Hold to your land, particularly that whence you derive your living. 23. Taane rou kakahi ka moea ; taane moe i roto i te whare kurua te takataka. The husband who is dexterous at getting shell-fish in deep water, will find a loving wife; the husband who sleeps idly in the house, will be thumped and knocked about. This operation of getting shell-fish in deep water, both fresh and salt, was generally performed by men with their feet; by which they dislodged the shell-fish, and then got them into proper nets, ete. II.—IN FAVOUR OF PERSEVERANCE, EXERTION, ETC. 24. Tohea, ko te tohe i te kai. Persevere strenuously, like as you do in eating. 25. Na te waewae i kimi. Obtained by seeking. Lit. Sought for by the leg. 26. He iti te toki e rite ana ki te tangata. Though the stone-axe be small, it is equal to the man (in clearing the forest, etc.) 27. He iti hoki te mokoroa, nana i kakati te kahikatea. Although the grub is but little, yet it gnaws through the big white pine tree (Podocarpus dacrydioides). Cotenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 119 28. Mate kanohi miromiro. To be found by the sharp-eyed little bird. Lit. For the miromiro’s eye. Used as a stimulus to a person searching for anything lost. The miro- miro is the little Petroica toitoi, which runs up and down trees peering for minute insects in the cavities in the bark. 29. He kai iana ta te tou e ho ake ? Do you think to gain food through inaction ? Lit. Will squatting at home on your posteriors bring you food ? 80. E rua tau ruru; e rua tau wehe; e rua tau mutu; e rua tau kai. Two seasons of drought; two seasons of scarcity ; two seasons of crop failure ; two seasons of plenty. Meaning : Persevere, keep at it, success will follow. 81. Tungia te ururua, kia tupu whakaritorito te tupu o te harakeke, Set fire to the scrub that the flax plants may shoot forth young evergreen shoots. Meaning: Clear off the old and bad that the new and good may grow vigorously. III. Acatnst Ipteness, Laziness, GLUTTONY, ETC. 92. Nga huhu, nga wera, to kai, e mangere! This lazy fellow does nothing but roast himself by the fire ! Lit. Burns (and) sealds (are) thy food O lazy-bones ! 83. He kai ko tau e pahure. Food is the thing you can get through very well (but work you can- not despatch, understood). 94. Kai hanu, kai hanu, hoki mai ano koe ko to koiwi! After going about idly “loafing” (mumping) from place to place (lit., eating scraps !), thou returnest again to thy own proper home ! 85. Hohonu kakii, papaku uaua ! Deep throat, little sinews (to work) ! N.B.— Here also the adjectives should be noticed, being in direct oppo- sition, and not only so but as here used they have a ludicrous quip, being terms properly and usually applied to water—Hohonu — - deep : papaku = shallow ~ This would prove a cutting saying. Here is a similar one :— 36. Ka kai kopu, ka iri whata, kei te uaua te kore. He fills his belly, he carefully lays up the remainder for himself, but, alas! has no sinews for work! ~ 120 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Here is another :— 87. To kaha kei te kakii, karapetau tonu ! Thy strength is in thy throat, for ever swallowing greedily. 88. He moumou kai ma Te Whataiwi puku ngakengake ! It's waste of food to give it to big-bellied Store-up-bones. Two peculiar terms are to be noted here :—1. The figurative name given to the person, Whataiwi, i.e., one who puts by dry bones (including fishes' heads, etc.) for himself on a platform for storing food; and, 2. The ludic- rous term (not the common one) for big belly, i.e., the loose hanging bag of a large sea-net ! 89. He hiore tahutahu ! An often singed tail ! Used foran idle fellow. "Taken from a lazy dog lying before the fire and getting its tail repeatedly burnt. N.B. The tail of the ancient Maori dog had very long hair, which was of great value to its master for clothing and ornament, but when singed was useless ; and might therefore be killed for food. 40. Kei te raumati ka kitea ai e koe te tupu. When summer comes you will find it by its sprouts. Spoken ironically to a person who will not exert himself to find a lost thing, etc. 41. E noho, tena te au o Rangitaiki hei kawe i a koe. Sit on idly, doing nothing, there are the rapid currents of the river Rangitaiki to carry thee along. Used to a lazy fellow who ceases paddling the canoe. 49. He huanga ki Matiti, he tama ki Tokerau. In the planting season merely a relative; at harvest time a son (or, eldest son). : 48. He kooanga tangata tahi, he ngahuru puta noa. At planting time, helpers come straggling singly; at harvest, all hands come from everywhere round Lit.—to show its terseness—At planting, single-handed ; at harvest, all around. Here is a similar one, which was a favourite saying of the late chief Te Hapuku :— 44. Hoa piri ngahuru, taha kee raumati. Friends stick to you in harvest, but fall of i in summer—the season of scarcity and work. Very like our English proverbs, ** Prosperity makes friends, adversity tries them ;” ** The rich man has many friends." . CoLenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 121 45. He kakariki kai ata! (Like) a little green parrot (which) eats at daybreak ! Spoken of a person who looks to eat on rising before going to work. 46. He kuukuu tangae nui ! A pigeon bolts his food. Used of a greedy fellow, never satisfied. 47. He kuukuu tangaengae nui; he parera apu paru The pigeon bolts, the duck gobbles up mud and all. Baid of a gluttonous fellow. 48. He kaakaa kai honihoni ! A parrot eats leisurely, bit by bit. Said to a person who eats moderately and slowly. 49. Ka whakarongo pikari nga taringa. (With) ears quick at listening, like young birds in their nests. Spoken of a fellow always on the look-out for the call to meals. Here is another of a similar meaning (also one of Te Hapuku's) :— 50. Taringa muhu kai ! Ears on the qui vive for food ! 51. Awhato kai paenga ; and, Ka mahi te awhato hohoni paenga ! Bravo! great caterpillar eating around the edge of the leaf! Those two proverbs are nearly alike. The awhato is the large larva of the moth Sphina convolvuli (or some allied species), which ate the leaves of the kumara, or sweet potatoe, in the Maori plantations (beginning at the edges and leaving the mid-veins), and was therefore a most noxious and hateful animal to them. The proverb is used of a greedy person who goes eating from basket to basket at meal times, selecting the best bits. Formerly, the New Zealanders had their cooked food served up in numerous small baskets; they often sat in a circle to eat their food, and always out of doors. 52. Awhato ngongenga roa! Ugly great caterpillar, always slowly nibblin This is similar to the last two. 58. Ko Uenuku to korokoro ! Thy throat is even as Uenuku's. Applied to a great glutton. This is even stronger in Maori,—‘ Thy throat is Uenuku.” He was a desperate old glutton of very ancient times, who had dwelt at * Hawaiki.” Many things are related of him. 54. Tohu noa ana koe, e Rangikiato, he whata kei te hakii ! O Rangikiato! what are you after? Laying by food! a a food-store is in thy throat! 122 Transactions.—M iscellaneous. Applied to a man who eats more than his share, or who takes away tit- bits from others at meals. 55. Patua tho, he kaka, ki tahaki tera ; a, ka puehuehu, ma tana whaiaro tera. He pounds away, lo! a stringy bit,—that's placed alongside (for the visitors); ha! a nice mealy bit, that’s for himself or his favourite. This has reference to the preparation of fern-root for eating ; and was used for a sly, selfish, greedy person. N.B.—There was a great difference in fern-root, of which varieties the Maori had many names. ‘The difference was much the same as in the various kinds of potatoes and of flour with us. 56. Pikipiki motumotu, ka hokia he whanaunga ! Constantly returning (at food-time, saying, he does so) because he is a relation ! This proverb is concerning a lazy fellow, a '*loafer," who always con- irives to drop in at meals, because he is a relation ; and is often used in times of scarcity of food, so as to cause those sitting at meat to eat up their victuals quickly. But the whole story is too good to be lost, so I give a translation of it. — * Tama-ki-te-wananga was lighting his fire to roast his food, but the fire did not burn briskly, so he said, ‘ Bother the fire, it does not kindle well; and stooping down he blew atit with his breath that it might burn the better. At this very moment Hauokai had come up, and was standing behind his back, but Tama did not know of it; so he kept on blowing away at his fire, saying, between whiles, ‘Flame up, blaze away, that thou be not caught by Hauokai. It came to pass, however, that he (Tama) was indeed thus eaught by him while saying those very words. On hearing them, Hauokai ealled down from behind his back, * What have you got against me, O Tama-ki-te-wananga ? Then Tama turned round and looked up— alas! there, verily, was Hauokai himself standing looking down on him. For some time Tama kept looking up with vacànt surprise, not knowing what to say. At last he said, ‘Thy often comings and goings.’ Hauokai replied, ‘ Yes, my returning hither was owing to my relationship.’ Then Tama said to Hauokai, ‘ Just so, and more too; it is thy continually return- ing hither.’ Then it was that Hauokai said to Tama, * I frequently returned hither, as you have said, through our relationship, but now you and I shall be separate; we shall never again see each other from this time forward ; nevertheless, our two spirits (wairua) shall meet in the nether world (reinga).* And from that time they never saw each other up to their death.” * There are several items of interest in this old story, but I must pass them by to take up a more modern one. A few years ago, the then Superintendent of the late Auck- Cotenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 123 TV. Against BLANDER, Lyine, Srory-TELLING, ETC. 57. He pata ua ki runga, he ngutu tangata ki raro. Dropping water wears away the soil, so frequent slander a good name. Lit. A rain-drop above, a human lip below. Resembling some of Solo- mon’s Proverbs. 58. He tao rakau e karohia atu ka hemo ; te tao kii, werohia mai, tu tonu. A thrown wooden spear, if warded off, passes away; the spoken spear, when spoken, wounds deeply. Another rendering of the same proverb :-~ 59. He tao kii ekore e taea te karo, he tao rakau ka taea ano te karo, A spoken spear cannot be warded off, a wooden spear can easily be warded. 60. Ka katokato au i te rau pororua ! I am going about gathering, bit by bit, the bitter leaves of the sow- thistle. Meaning : I hear nothing but bitter words against me everywhere. N.B.—The pororua was the old New Zealand indigenous variety (or species) of sow-thistle, which is much more bitter than the introduced variety commonly called puwha. 61. Te whakangungu nei ki nga tara a whai o Araiteuru ! O for impenetrable armour to oppose against the stings of the sting- rays of Araiteuru ! Used by a chief in defending his own tribe against slander. I believe Araiteuru is a large shoal off the West Coast, near Taranaki; in such places, as also on shoals and mud-flats in harbours, as at Ahuriri, Whangarei, etc., large sting-rays abound. N.B.—Here again there is much in the very name of that shoal which is lost in translation, viz.: Barrier-against-the-western-blast. (Psalm EYN. 62. Kia eke au ki runga ki te puna o Tinirau ! I may just as well attempt to climb up and sit on the blow-hole of a land Province (Mr. J. Williamson) sought to have an interview with a Maori chief of note on political matters ; this, however, the chief paepe not grant, ending with saying, “ You and I shall never meet € we meet in the reinga." This, of course, was made much of. The dreadful bitt i ** never until we meet in hell Km intensified and dwelt upon hoidan with much Christian feeling, but all through ignorance on the part of the Christian Europeans. The New Zealander had no such thoughts, and only made use of an old saying, the English having chosen this word (reinga) as the equiva- lent for hell ; a meaning, however, which it does not possess. 124 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. A proverb of deep meaning to a Maori, grounded on legendary lore. Used of slander. 63. Aweawe ana nga korero i runga o Maunga Piware. Reports and talks are ever floating in the air over Mount Piware. I suspect that this place, ‘‘ Mount Piware," has a highly figurative meaning :—1. Pi and ware: pi — young downy nestlings, and ware — any thing viscous or sticky, as gum, etc. 2. Maunga has, besides its common meaning of mountain, the meaning of fast to, adhering to; so that the full meaning may be, reports floating in the air are light and downy, and are easily caught and held by soft viscid surfaces. Meaning : Don’t believe all you hear. 64. Tangaroa piri whare ! Tangaroa is hiding in the house. Tangaroa is one of the great Polynesian gods, and particularly of the sea and fishes; is invisible, and hears all; be careful. ** Walls have ears.” 65. Tangaroa pu-kanohi nui! Large-eyed Tangaroa can see all you do, or say. 66. Kei whawhati noa mai te rau o te raataa ! Don’t pluck and fling about to no purpose the blossoms of the raataa tree ! The raataa tree (Metrosideros ies: produces myriads of red flowers ; the small parts of these when blown off by the winds fill the air around : so,—Don’t become ashamed when your lying is detected. 67. Ko Maui whare kino ! Yes, Maui with the evil house! or, Just like Maui of the house of ill-fame ! Schemes and cunning stratagems were planned in Maui’s house, or by Maui wherever staying; he was truly the coming deviser of schemes; in this respect much after the fashion of Mercury, the son of Maia;* and of Proteus. 68. Ko Maui tini hanga ! Yes, Maui of many devices ! These last two proverbs were often used in speaking of a scheming, cunning person. 69. Ko korua pea ko Tama-arero i haere tahi mai ? Perhaps thou and False-tongue! travelled hither together ? 70. Korua pea ko Te Arahori, i haere tahi mai ? Perhaps thou and False-road came here together? * SOPHOCLES ; Philoctetes.—ARisSTOPHANES ; Plutus. —Horace ; Odes, lib. I., 10. t Son-of-the-tongue, or, Master-of-the-tongue, would be more literal, but I have given the meaning, Cotenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 125 71. I haere mai pea koe i te kaainga i a Te Arahori ? Perhaps thou camest hither from the village of Mr. False-way ? 72. Korua pea ko Te Tangokorero i haere tahi mai ? Perhaps thou and Take-up-talk travelled hither together? 73. Na Tangokorero pea koe i tono mai ki konei ? Perhaps thou wert sent hither by Take-up-talk ? Those last five proverbs are very nearly alike in meaning, though used by different tribes. They were made use of when visitors should arrive bringing strange tales, or slanderous ones. I bring them here together to show how largely the ancient New Zealanders dealt with fictitious and figurative characters, to whom they gave highly appropriate names, just as Bunyan, already mentioned. 74. Ka mahi te tamariki wawahi taahaa ! Bravo! children, smashing your (mothers’) calabashes ! This saying is often. applied to a man who is defaming his own relations, or tribe. r V. Against Trustine to PROMISES, APPEARANCES, ETC. 75. Nga korero o era rangi, mahue noa ake ! Promises of other days, wholly left behind ! ** Never trust to fine promises.” 76. He marama koia kia hoki rua ki Taitai ? If indeed thou wert like the moon to return a second time to its place of shining ? Lit. A moon indeed! to return twice to one place (or to Taitai — name of place) ? - Baid to a person who promises to give you something at the next time of meeting. 77. Poroaki tutata, whakahoro ki tau kee! Last words at parting stand close at hand, deferred by slips to another year! Said of a person too ready in promising. N.B.—The word ‘‘ whakahoro’’—which I have rendered deferred by slips—is here very expressive; it means to fall by degrees, or to slip, slide, or crumble down, as clayey cliffs, ete. ; or to be levelled, as mounds, dykes, etc. 78. Hohoro i aku ngutu, e mau ana te tinana, My lips were quick (to move), the body being fixed. Meaning: Promises were quickly made, but the body is slow to BERRE N.B.—“ Body,” with the old Maoris, meant more than with us; viz., the whole man, the entirety, the substance, as against the mere lips. Just a 126 Transactions.— Miscellaneous, as we might speak of the body of an oak in comparison with two of its branchlets. ** My tongue hath sworn, my mind is still unsworn."—Evnr». ; Hippo- lytus. 79. Haere ana a Manawareka, noho ana a Manawakawa. Well-pleased goes off, Bitter-mind remains behind ! Meaning: He who has got what he wanted goes away rejoicing; while he who has given without any return gift, trusting to the others’ promises, endures the pangs of disappointment and regret. 80. Tee whai patootoo a Rauporoa ! Long-Bulrush did not strike loudly and repeatedly (so as to be heard)! or, Long-Bulrush gains nothing by his repeated attempts at hitting! This proverb is used by, or for, a person who returns without that for which he went. It is one of deep meaning to an old Maori (though little understood by the present younger ones), and always evokes a laugh; but requires a little explanation. The Raupo plant (— Bulrush, T'ypha angustifolia), which is here figuratively personified, grows in watery places and in the water; the tips of its long narrow numerous leaves are always agitated with the least breeze, and are naturally carried by the same in one direction before the wind; hence, they invariably keep the same distance from each other, or, if they clash, their striking is not heard, and is productive of no result. Moreover, as the longest plants grow only in the deeper water, the saying may also have a latent reference to the greater difficulty in gathering the flowering spikes from such tall plants ; for, in the summer season, parties went among the Raupo specially to gather the dense heads of flowers for the purpose of collecting their pollen, when only a smaller quantity could be obtained from the over-long plants, owing to their extra height above and to the greater depth of water below, etc., though attended with much more labour. This pollen, in its raw state, closely resembled our ground table-mustard ; it was made into a light kind of yellow cake, and baked. It was sweetish to the taste, and not wholly unlike London gingerbread. Thirty years ago, specimens of it, both raw and baked, were sent to the Museum, at Kew. I have seen it collected in buckets-full. 81. Hei te tau koroii ! and, Hei te tau ki tua ! Put off till the season in which the white pine tree bears its fruit ! (which is not, however, every year); and, Atthe season yet to come. 82. He iramutu tu kee mai i tarawahi o te awa. A nephew stands carelessly (or, without regard) on the opposite side of the river, Cotenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 127 Meaning: He is not to be depended on in times of extremity, ete., like a son. I take it, however, that this * nephew" is the son of a brother, not the son of a sister. 83. He pai rangitahi ! À one day's beauty ; a short-lived pleasure. Sometimes used of a girl's countenance. Meaning, also: After a fine day, a storm follows; after a great feast, a famine, etc. 84. He pai tangata ekore e reia ; he kino wahine ka reia. A handsome man is not always eagerly sought after; an ugly woman is eagerly sought for—or, has plenty of lovers. Here it should be remembered, that with the New Zealanders the women always began the courting. 85. He pai kanohi, he maene kiri, he ra te kai ma tona poho ; waihoki, he pai kupu kau. Pretty face, smooth skin, loves to bask idly in the sun; therefore the beauty consists in words only. (‘Prettiness dies quickly"). This is plain enough ; but, in the next, we have just the opposite. 86. He pai kai ekore e roa te tirohanga ; he pai kanohi e roa te tirohanga ! Good and pleasant food is not long looked at; a good-looking face is long observed. Meaning : Looked on with satisfaction and delight. ViI.—Aceainst A BoasrER, ETC. 87. He nui to ngaromanga, he iti te putanga. Long thy absence, little seen (with thee) on return. 88. E wha o ringaringa, e wha o waewae ! Thou hast four hands and four legs ! A word said quietly to a boasting fellow. 89. He kaakaa waha nui ! A noisy-mouthed parrot! Applied to a chatterer, or boasting person. 90. Me ho mai nga hau o Rirapa ki uta. Let the exploits of Rirapa be brought to land. 91. Kei uta nga hau o Rirapa te tu ai. "Tis on shore that the fine doings of Rirapa are seen. Both used of a lazy, hulking fellow, who is lazy in a fishing-canoe at sea, etc. 92. Whaka-Ruaputahanga i a koe ! * Thou art making thyself appear as big as the great lady chief of old Ruaputahanga ! Said to a boaster. 128 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Here again, no doubt, is a figurativé name; or a secondary name, often added on account of qualities, doings, etc.; Ruaputahanga meaning a store whence goods, etc., were always being issued. The liberal person was always liked and immortalized. 93. Toku toa he toa rangatira. My courage is that of a chief; or, my courage is derived from my ancestors. Said, but rarely, to a mushroom-man of to-day, who boasts of himself or his doings. Here it should be borne in mind that a chief of to-day is the descendant of ancient chiefs. : 94. Ko nga rangatira a te tau titoki ! Chiefs of the titoki year ! This needs explanation. The titoki, or titongi tree (Alectryon excelsum), from the fruit of which the natives formerly extracted an oil for anointing the hair and persons of their chiefs, only bore fruit plentifully (according to them) every fourth year ; so that, in that year, all hands could use the oil and a little red pigment, and thus, for once, look like a chief without being so. (A daw in borrowed plumes.) 95. Tiketike ao, papaku po ! A tall pinnacle by daylight, shallow water by night. Lit. Lofty day, shallow night. Meaning: Valiant and boasting, when the sun is shining and all is well and no danger near ; but in the darkness and dread, low enough. 96. Tiketike ngahuru, hakahaka raumati ! Tall at harvest, low at planting season ! Meaning: He boasts enough in the autumn when there is plenty of food and little to do ; but in the wearisome and heavy working spring season he is not to be seen. 97. Ko wai hoki koia te wahine pai rawa? Te wehenga atu ano i a Mutu- rangi ! Who, indeed, now is the beautiful woman? All that ceased for ever with the last great lady (i.e., when she died). This saying is used when a woman is vain of herself; or, when persons boast of the good old times, when better, or handsomer females lived. The ancient beautys name, Muturangi, means,—the last of the great lady chieftainesses. Rangi (= sky, heaven) is an ancient name for a principal chief, whether male or female,—from Rangi, the first parent or producer of man; and was also used by way of high title, or address. I have no doubt, however, of its here having a highly figurative meaning, like other proper names in many of their proverbs. Corzxso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 129 VII.—Acamst INHOSPITALITY. 98. He kuukuu ki te kaainga, he kaakaa ki te haere. A pigeon at home, a parrot abroad. The New Zealand pigeon is a silent bird ; the parrot is a noisy screamer. The pigeon remains quietly sitting on the high trees; the parrot flies about, making the forest resound with its loud cries. This proverb is applied to an inhospitable chief; he does not raise the cheerful inspiriting shout of ** Welcome !" to travellers nearing his village ; but, when he travels, then, on approaching any place, he sounds his trumpet to get food prepared, and afterwards finds fault with the victuals given him. 99. E riri Kai-po, ka haere Kai-ao. When Eat-by-night is angry, Eat-by-day leaves. Meaning: Yf the illiberal mean chief be angry (shown by withholding food and welcome), the liberal generous men continue on their journey. It was considered a very great insult for a travelling party to pass by a pa or village without calling. Kai-po is the common term for a mean selfish person. 100. Kei kai i te ketekete. Lest there be nothing to eat but vain regrets. Meaning: Bad for both sides—the visitors and visited—to have only excuses for food. This proverb was sometimes used by a chief as a warning to his tribe, when expecting visitors. 101. He kotuku kai-whakaata. The white crane eats leisurely, after viewing his food and his own shadow in the still water. This is said of a chief who looks after due preparations being made for his expected visitors ; also, of one who quietly and courteously awaits the arrival and sitting of others to their repast before he eats his own food. VIIL—RzrarmG ro Hippen Tuoveuts. 102. He kokonga whare e kitea. : The dark corner of a house can be seen and searched ;— (understood, to complete the meaning) but not the heart of man. 108. He taanga kakaho ka kitea e te kanohi; tena ko te taanga ngakau ekore e kitea. A mark, or knot (or placing), of a reed can be seen with the eye, but that of the heart can not be seen. 104. He ta kakaho e kitea, ko te ta o te ngakau ekore e kitea. A knot, joint, or mark, on the cutting-grass reed is seen, but the mark or knot (heaving or thought) of the heart is not seen. 10 180 Transactions.— Miscellaneous, I have often heard these last two proverbs used. They fall with bitter effect on the guilty person, often causing deep shame, as the New Zealanders abominated slander. The reference in both is to the kakaho reeds or flower-stalks, (cutting-grass = Arundo conspicua), formerly used for the inner walls and ceilings of a chief’s house ; these were some- times partly coloured black in a kind of pattern of sarolat, and when regularly laid side by side had a pleasing effect; any irregularity, however, in pattern or in laying, was speedily detected by the practised eye of the Maori ; hence the proverb. 105. He nui pohue toro ra raro. The convolvulus (roots are) many and spread below (the soil):—supply, | just as the secret thoughts of men’s hearts are hidden within. 106. He tiitii rere ao ka kitea, he tiitii rere po ekore e kitea. The petrel which flies by day is seen ; the petrel which flies by night is not seen. One species of petrel always flies back to its mountain home from the ocean very late in the evening; I have very often heard its cry, but never ` saw it on the wing. This proverb is said of men’s thoughts; also of night-attacks from the enemy. 107. Ko to kai waewae te tuku mai ki au, kia huaina atu, e arotau ana mai. Thou allowest thy feet (or thy footsteps) to come hitherwards to me, that it may be said abroad, thou lovest to come hither. Often said by a woman who doubts the affection of her lover; also by the people of a village who doubt the professions of a visitor. 108. Katahi ka auraki mai ki te whanau a. te mangumangu kikino, i te aitanga a Punga i a au e! How strange! to struggle to hasten hither of thy own aecord to the offspring of the black and ugly, to me the begotten of Punga! Punga is said to be the father or progenitor of all the ugly and deformed fish, as sharks and rays, and also of lizards. This proverb is applied by a man to a woman who had deserted him as her lover, but who returns to him again. IX. Resrectine CAUTION; ETC. 109. Ehia motunga o te weka i te mahanga ? How often does the wood-hen break away from the snare ? Meaning : Take care, you will be caught at last. 110. Ka hoki ranei te weka i motu ki te mahanga ? Will the escaped wood-hen indeed return to the snare ? Meaning : ** Once bit, twice shy." CorzNso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 131 111. Hoki atu i kona, ko te manu i motu i te mahanga ekore e taea te whai. Go back from where you are, it is useless pursuing the bird escaped from the snare. Meaning : It is useless to attempt to take me in again. Said to have been used in ancient times by a lady who ran away from her husband; he pursued her to bring her back, and she got round a headland at low-water: ; on his reaching the place, the tide was breaking against the base of the cliffs, when she called to him from the top using those words, which have since passed into a proverb. 112. He pureirei whakamatuatanga. A faithful fatherly tuft of rushes. This is said of a good solid tuft of rushes in a swamp, which, in crossing the swamp, you stand on to rest awhile, and to look around before you take the next step. A word of caution for many things. ‘Look before you leap." : 118. Ka tuwhaina te hwware ki te whenua, e hoki atu ranei ki tou waha ? When the spittle is spit out on the ene will it return to thy mouth again ? Meaning : (much as the last), ** Look before you leap." 114. Kia mau koe ki te kupu a tou matua. Hold fast to the advice of thy father (or guardian). A word of caution often given to the young,—as the dying advice, or teachings of the departed, were always strongly inculeated. 115. Kia whakatupu tangata, kaua hei tutu. Show yourself (lit.; be growing up) a true man; never be dis- obedient. Often said to the young. (I. Cor. xvi., 18). 116. Kapo atu koe i te kai i nga ringaringa o nga pakeke, a e taea ranei e koe te whai i nga turanga o tupuna ? Thou snatchest food roughly from the hands of the elders, and dost thou think thou wilt be able to follow in the steps of thy ancestors ? Applied to a chief’s child, on his snatching food, or anything, from the hands of aged persons. 117. Ata! ina te kakii ka taretare noa ; ka maaro tonu nga uaua o te kakii ! How disgusting! to see the neck turning from side to side; and the sinews of the neck strained to the utmost! Said of a person looking over the other baskets of cooked food set before a party, and eoveting what is placed before his neighbours or companions. The peculiar terms used are those which refer to a bird on the look-out up in a tree, 182 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 118. Kaore a te rakau whakaaro, kei te tohunga te whakaaro. The wood has no thoughts, such only belong to its carver, or designer. 119. Tirohia, he moko. Examine well a tattooed countenance! (Meaning: A nobleman.) Said by a man to another who stares rudely at him. 120. He whakatau karanga, tino taka iho a Te Kaahu. At the very first attempt to make the call (to dinner), down rushes Te Kaahu. Applied to a person who jumps at an invitation which was scarcely really meant. The person mentioned figuratively by name, Te Kaahu, is, translated literally, the Hawk. 121. Mate wareware te uri o Kaitoa ; takoto ana te paki ki tua. Foolishly died the offspring of Recklessness, the fine weather was ready close at hand. 122. Mate papakore te uri o Kaitoa. The offspring of Rashness died heedlessly. These last two proverbs have the same meaning; the reference is to those who went hastily to sea in their canoe when a gale was coming on, and all miserably perished ; fine weather, too, being near. Meaning: Be prudent; don't act rashly. 193. Kei mau ki te pou pai, he pow e eketia e te kiore; tena ko te pou kino, ekore e eketia e te kiore. Do not select a fine nice post (for your storehouse), as that kind of post will be climbed up to the top by the rat, but the ugly post will not be so ascended by the rat. This is advice from a father to his son about taking a wife (which has become a proverb)—meaning: Do not seek so much for a handsome person, who may cause you trouble, for you may be better off and dwell quieter with a plain one. 194. He pirau kai ma te arero e kape. The tongue soon detects and rejects (a bit of) rotten or bitter food. Meaning: Any evil thing may be quickly found out and thrown aside. 125. Honoa te pito ora ki te pito mate. Join the living end to the weak one. Used sometimes for raising a weak or impoverished chief or tribe, by alliance or marriage with a stronger one. An allusion is here made to the ends of kumara, or sweet potatoes; in planting, they make use of the sprouting end of the root as seed, and so, sometimes, place two such ends in one little hillock to make sure of plants. 126. Honoa te pito mata ki te pito maoa. Eat together (lit., join) the underdone end with the nicely-cooked end (of the sweet potatoes, understood). Cotenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 133 Meaning: Don’t be too nice. 127. Kai mata whiwhia, maoa riro kee! Food underdone (is) your own (lit., possessed), fully-cooked goes (with others). Meaning: Be quick at your cooking and eating, or visitors may eat it for you. 128. Tunu huruhuru, kei wawe tu ana a Puwhakaoho. Roast (your bird) with its feathers on; (or'your rat) with its fur, lest you be suddenly surprised by an unwelcome visitor.—Here figuratively named Startling-trumpet. The meaning of this is the same as the last. 129. Kakariki tunua, kakariki otaina. Eat up the green parrots whether roasted or raw.. Meaning: Be not over nice; as a party travelling in the woods, or going to fight, has no time for much cooking. 130. Hohoro te kai ma tatou; akuenei tu ana Rae-roa, noho ana Rae-poto ! Hasten the food for us ; soon (the) Long-foreheads (will be) standing (here, when) Short-foreheads (will have to) sit down. Raeroa, or Long-forehead, is a name for chiefs; while Raepoto, or Short- forehead, is a name for the common men. I suspect this arose from the old manner of dressing their hair,* in which that of the male chiefs was drawn up tightly in front.and secured at the top by a knot, or band ; while that of the lower people hung loosely down. The New Zealanders, always a hard- working people, were quite alive to the English € of ** Quick at meat, quick at work.” X. Acamsst Maxine Muca or SMALL MATTERS. 181. Kei maaku toku. Do not wet my garment. Lit. Let not mine be wetted: the passive being the more genteel, or mannerly, way of expressing it. The whole saying is, perhaps, worthy of notice :— Kei maaku toku kakahu! A, maaku noa atu? Kapaa, he wera ite ahi, ka kino ; tena, he maaku i te wai,—horahia atu ki te ra kua maroke !— Don’t wet my garment! And yet, if it were wet, what then? But if, indeed, it were burnt by fire, that would be bad; as it is, however, merely wet with a little water,—just spread it in the sun, and it is dry again in no time! Meaning : Don't complain of trifles. In the olden time, when no chief ever raised a cup, or calabash, of water to his lips to drink, but slaves went round giving them water, by pouring * Vide plates, 13, 55, etc., in Cook; and in Parkinson, 15, 16, 17, 21. 134 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. it out of a guggling calabash into the palm of the chief’s hand, held beneath his under-lip,—no doubt it was a ticklish matter to give drink to all, sitting closely together, without wetting their scanty clothing. And so, this story, or saying, was invented to ease the poor slave ! Here is another, and a good one, having the same meaning :— 132. Tineia te ahi! auahi tahi! Put out the fire! there’s nothing but smoke ! A sentence, or exclamation, often made, as I have too painfully experienced in their close houses without a chimney! But, again, let us have the whole story :— Tineia te ahi! auahi tahi! Ha! he au uta! Kapaa, ko te au ki Katikati, ae. Put out the fire! there's nothing but smoke! Exactly so! but it is smoke on land! If now, it were the whirling currents at Kati- kati,—then, indeed, you would have something to complain of. One of the peculiarities of this sentence is the play upon words, which is lost in the translation. The same word (aw) is used for smoke as for a strong current or rapid; it is also used for the gall of the liver of any animal; and frequently for anything very bitter. Ergo; Just as smoke is to the eyes, so is gall to the taste, and strong fear or dread to the heart, or inner feelings. Moreover, the name of the place with the fearful rapids is Katikati = to bite sharply and quickly ; to sting like nettles, thorns, ete. ; to draw and pain, as a blister, mustard-plaster, or living ** Portuguese man- of-war ’’—one of the stinging Meduse. 133. Ka wia tonutia e koe, ka roa tonute ara; ka kore koe e uiui, ka poto te ara. If (the length of the road) be continually enquired after by thee, then it will prove very long; but if thou wilt not keep "€ then it will be short This speaks for itself. It is Tunt the same with us. 184. Pipitori nga kanohi; koko taia nga waewae ; whenua i mamao, tenei rawa. With sharp bird's eyes and quiek moving feet, land at a distance will soon be gained. Similar in meaning to the last—a word of comfort to young, or new travellers. 185. Imua, ata haere ; i muri, whatiwhati waewae. Those who leave early on a journey travel leisurely ; those who leave late, and have to overtake the others, hurt their feet. Lit. Foremost, travel gently ; hindmost, break legs. 186. Kia noho i taku kotore ; kia ngenge te pakihiwi. Be thou sitting behind my back (lit., anus), and let thy shoulder become weary. A saying for paddling in a canoe. Meaning: All work has unpleasantnesses, ‘No gains without pains,” Corzxso.— Oii à better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 185 187. He manga-a-wai koia, kia kore e whitikia ? Is it indeed a big river, that cannot be crossed. A saying often used, meaning: It is as nothing, why make such a fuss about it. XI. Against BEGINNING Wan, ETC. 188. He kai kora nui te riri! War (is like) a devouring fire kindled by a spark. (James, m. 5.) 189. Ka tahuna te ururua ki te ahi, ekore e tumau tonu ki te wahi i tahuna atu ; kaore, ka kaa katoa te parae. When the tangled fern and shrubs are fired, (the fire) will not always be fixed in the place of firing, but will burn up the whole open country. Meaning: The sure extension of warfare. 140. Kei uta te pakanga, kei tai te whiunga. Though the fighting is begun inland, the spreading and finishing will be at the sea, or sea-side. Lit. Inland the fighting, at sea-side the Ea Meaning : In war the innocent suffer for the guilty. 141. E tae koutou ki uta, kei mau ki tai ki Tu, puhia he angina! e mau ki tai ki Noho, ma te huhu e popo, e hanehane. When you reach land, do not hold with the fighting-side, or you will be blown away as thin air; but hold with the side of Peace, that you may live long and die naturally. Lit. When you land, do not hold to the standing-side (or the side of Tu = god of war), blown away, thin air; but hold to the sitting (or quietly- dwelling) side, for the worms gradual day and skin disease. This is a difficult sentence to render into English ; but it is well worth preserving on account of its alleged antiquity. It is said, in their legends, to be the parting advice of an old chief, at * Hawaiki," named Houmai- tawhiti, to his sons, on their leaving “ ANIM for New Zealand. Of course, the meaning is, ** Hold fast to peace." N.B.—Note the opposition in the words Tu and Noho; Tu, standing, and restlessness — War; Noho, sitting, and settledness — Peace. 142. E horo ranei i a koe te tau o Rongomaitakupe ? Canst thou level the rocky ridge (or shoal) of Rongomaitakupe ? Meaning: Canst thou cause peace when war begins ? Rongomaitakupe is an extensive shoal or ridge of rocks, on which a terrible surf is always breaking. Here one is reminded of similar questions in the ancient Eastern book of Job, respecting the taming of Behemoth and Leviathan. 136 Transactions.—M iscellaneous. 148. He ika kai ake i raro. A fish eats upwards from below. The fish which you have caught, and is lying dead in your canoe, commenced nibbling from below in the depths of sea, and out of sight. Meaning: From trifling disputes bloody wars arise, ending in the death of chiefs ;—often poetically termed ika — fish. 144. Ko Nukutaumatangi, ko te hara ; waiho te raru mo Rupe. Nukutaumatangi was the cause of all the trouble; but Rupe got caught and punished for it. Said to a person who gets others punished for his evil doings. Here, also, from the names, there may be more of meaning than appears at first sight :—Nukutaumatangi = off to windy ridge; Rupe, the opposite (being also a name for their proverbially quiet and harmless pigeon). 145. Kaua e hinga mai ki runga i a au, kapaa iana he urunga oneone, ko te urunga mau tonu, ; Don’t lean on me (as a pillow), if indeed (I were as a) pillow of earth, that would remain firm. Meaning: Don’t look to me for help. 146. Ka tae ki Weriweri, he tohe rara, tona otinga. When (two) arrive at (the place called) Angry-dispute, the end is actual strife. (Angry-dispute is here spoken of as a place). Meaning : Keep your temper. 147. Kaati ra to penei, ka tae hau taaua ki Weriweri. Leave off thy (saying, or doing) thus, for you and I have fully come to Angry-dispute. A timely word of warning; similar to the last. 148. He tohe taau ki Kaiwere ? Art thou striving to reach Kaiwere ? Meaning : Provoke me a little longer and you will be hurt. 149. Ka karanga Taiha, kia apititutia, kia whana te hingahinga nga tupapaku ; ka karanga Maero, E, kawhakina tetahi momo ki te kaainga. Taiha cried, Close ranks with the enemy standing, that their slain bodies may early fall! Maero cried, Better let some retreat as posterity for our possessions ! Meaning : Discretion better than rashness. ** The better part of valour is discretion.” —Shakspeare. 150. Ka riri Taiha, ka kata Maero. When Taiha (is) angry, Maero laughs (or is merry). Meaning: Keep your temper. Corzxso.—On d better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 187 151. I paia koia te reinga ? Is the entrance to the lower world barred (or elosed) ?* Said to one desirous of war 152. He iti tangata e tupu ; he iti toli, e iti tonu iho. A little human-being will grow; a little stone-axe always continues little. N.B.—An axe (though only of stone) was formerly among the most valuable of their goods. Cook says,t he could not get the New Zealanders to sell him any of their stone axes, not for anything he had in his ship. Meaning: A man is of more value than any property. XII. CONCERNING CONDUCT IN TIME OF War, ETC. 158. I nga ra o te pai, hei pai ; i nga ra o te kino, hei kino. In times of peace dwell peacefully ; in times of war be brave. Or, In the good days be good ; in the evil days be evil. : Here, again, is a double play on words which possess much meaning. ** In peace he was the gale of spring, In war the mountain storm." 154. Ruia taitea, kia tu ko taikaka anake. Shake off the sap-wood, and let the hard heart-wood only stand. In a totara tree (Podocarpus totara) the taitea is the outer, white or sap- wood, which soon decays, and near the centre is the taikaka or hardest wood. Meaning: Let the common people and children stay at home, and the warriors only go to fight. 155. Hangitihi upoko i takaia ki te akatea. Rangitihi’s head was bound up with the white-flowering creeper (Metrosideros albiflora). This hero of old, when his skull was split with his enemy’s club, had it bound up with this creeping shrub, and, although his men had retreated, led them on again to battle, and gained the day. Meaning: The truly brave man never despairs. 156. Ko te upoko i takaia ki te akatea. The head which was bound with the white-flowering creeper. Used for a brave warrior :—He binds up his head, or wounds, and fights away. A proverb similar to the last, and from the same incident. * So Virgil : —— “facilis descensus Averno ; Noctes atque dies patet atri janua Ditis.” —Æn., lib. vi. + First Voyage, Vol. III., p. 464. 138 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 157. Ka mahi te tawa uho ki te riri! Well done tawa-kernel fighting away ! 158. He tawa para! he whati kau taana ! A tawa pulp ! he only runs away ! These two proverbs I have taken together, on account of their simile. The tawa tree (Nosodaphne tawa) bears a large purple fruit, in which there is a single stone or kernel, not wholly unlike that of the date ; this is exceedingly hard, and cannot easily be broken; the pulp or flesh of the fruit is very soft when fully ripe; hence, from the one fruit, the comparison is drawn of the hero and the coward. 159. Te waka pukatea ; te waka kohekohe. The canoe (made of the) pukatea tree; the canoe (made of the) kohekohe tree. The wood of those trees is alike soft, and won't last long in the water ; besides canoes made of them are both heavy (when water-logged) and slow. Pukatea = Atherosperma nove-zelandie ; Kohekohe = Dysoxylum spectabile. This proverb is used of cowards. 160. He hiore hume ! and, He whiore hume tenei tangata ! Both terms derived from dogs, which clap their tails between their legs and sneak away. Used also of cowards. 161. Titiro to mata ki a Rehua, ki te mata kihai i kamo. Look up with thine eyes at the planet Mars (or Jupiter), at the eye which never twinkles. Meaning; Never allow your eyes to wink when face to face in hand-to- hand combat. 162. He koura koia kia whero wawe ? (Art thou) indeed a crawfish, to turn red, the moment (thou art) thrown on the fire ? Said to a foe in hand-to-hand encounter, who boasts you have not yet hurt him. 168. Tini whetu, e iti te pokeao. SUE The stars are many, but a little black cloud hides them. Meaning: A small party of determined warriors may beat a large number. 164. Ma wai e rou ake te whetu o te rangi ka taka kei raro ? Who ean reach (or scrape) with a crooked stick the stars of heaven that they should fall below ? | Meaning : Can you take captive a powerful chief 9. 165. He mate i te marama. The moon dies, or, it is of the nature of the moon to wane or die, (and returns again, understood). Meaning : Not so, however, with you ; so beware of rashness. CorENso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 189 166. Kia mate a Ururoa ! kei mate Tarakihi. ~ Let us die fighting bravely, as the fierce shark, Ururoa, struggling to the last! and not die quietly like the fish Tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropterus). 167. He pokeke Uenuku i tu ai. By means of the dark cloud the rainbow is seen to advantage brightly. Meaning : A chief looks ia at the head of a large tribe.* 168. Me te koteo mau kupenga Like the post in Mina sea to which the ends of the net s are fixed to keep it open. Said of an able chief whose influence keeps his tribe together, so that their enemies are finally enelosed and taken, as fish in a net. 169. E moe ana te mata hii tuna, e ara ana te mata hii taua. Sleeping are the eyes of the eel-fisher ; wakeful are the eyes of the war-fisher. Meaning: That the eyes and thoughts of the fisherman enjoy peaceful rest at nights, and he even nods between his bites when fishing ; but those of the planner and conductor of battles know no rest. 170. Tatai korero i ngaro ; tatai korero e rangona. Concerted schemes are hidden — come to nothing ; concerted plans are heard = carried out. Meaning: Only those schemes which are agreeable to the tribe will be attended to. 171. Hinga tho, tomo atu te pa. (The enemy), falling (before you), enter the fort. Meaning: Follow up quickly an advantage; i.e., having defeated the enemy in the open, storm their village. 172. Te koura unuhanga a Tama. The crayfish which was pulled out (of its hole) after long pulling and working by Tama. Tama is said to be one of the first who found out the plan of dislodging crawfish from their holes and using them as food. Meaning : Not easy to dislodge a warrior from his strong-hold, but got out at last! 178. Turaungatao e, E pewhea ana te mamae? Taaria tho, Kihai he hanga- hanga ake te kai a Turaungatao! O Stand-against-a-hundred-spears, what kind of pain (is caused by a wound in battle)? Wait a while. It was not long (before he knew) the food of Stand-against-a-hundred-spears. * Vide Prov, No. 11, ante. 140 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. This question is supposed to be put by a young man before the battle begins to an old warrior, and half slightingly. After the battle is over, and the young fellow wounded, the veteran says to him, * Ah! You thought that what I had had so much of (my food) was a trifle, did you? What think you now? “He jests at scars that never felt a wound.”—Shakspeare. 174. E! ko te matakahi maire ! Lo! the iron-wood wedge ! Used of a warrior. Meaning; He separates the enemy before him, as the wedge of the hard Maire wood (Santalum cunninghamii*) splits up a log. 175. E tia! me te wheke e pupuru ana! : Though stabbed through (with my spear), he holds on (to it) like a cuttle-fish with its arms and suckers. Said by a warrior of his hand-spear in fight. Another saying of similar meaning :— 176. Me te mea kei te paru e titi ana! As difficult to pull my spear back out of his body as if I had stuck it into sticky holding mud. 177. Waiho i te toka tu moana ! Stand firm and compact as the surf-beaten rock in the ocean ! Used by a chief in battle. 178. Waiho kia oroia, he whati toki nui. Just leave the big stone axe to be re-sharpened, its edge is merely chipped a bit. Meaning: Though some of the braves of our tribe are killed, the remnant, including the chief, will fight the more fiercely. 179. Ekore e ngaro, he takere waka nui. The hull of a large canoe cannot be hidden. Meaning: Although we have lost many in battle, we shall not become extinct; our tribe is numerous. 180. He puia taro nui, he ngata taniwha rau, ekore e ngaro. A cluster of flourishing Taro plants (Colocasia antiquorum), a hundred devouring slugs, or leeches, cannot be extirpated — It is diffi- cult to destroy them all. So with a large tribe. 181. Kore te hoe, kore te taataa. " Alas! without paddles and baler ! A canoe in this state must be lost. Applied to a tribe in a helpless state. 182. He pukepuke maunga, e pikitia e te tangata ; he pukepuke moana, e ekeina e te waka ; he pukepuke tangata, ekore e pikitia e te tangata. . " But, at the south parts of the North Island, Maire is the Maori name of the Olea cunninghamii, CorENso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 141 The mountain’s summit can be climbed by man; the waves of the ocean ean be topped by a canoe; the human mount cannot be scaled by man. Meaning: If he had sought shelter on the mountain, or at sea, we could have followed him ; but being sheltered by a great chief, we cannot follow him there. N.B.—Note the play on the three debe culo: which are wholly lost in translation. XIII. MISCELLANEOUS. 188. I motu mai i whea ? te rimu o te moana. Whence was the drifting sea-weed torn? Sometimes used of a stranger. 184. He rimu pae noa ! A sea-weed driven about ! . Used by a wanderer concerning himself. I have known this saying used in a very melancholy way by a young man, a lover, when discarded by his love, and he travelling from place to place to forget his grief. It struck me as being very poetical. 185. I taia to moko ki te aha ? To what purpose was your face tattooed ? A cutting sarcasm to a finely tattooed man, when he acts cowardly or meanly. As only nobles and chiefs were tattooed. 186. Kapaa ianei he matua whare e hinga ana, ka hangaa ano, kua oti ; ano ko te marama kua ngaro, kua ara ano. If indeed your father had fallen like a house, then he could be raised again and finished anew ; or if he were as the moon and died, then he would return again. This saying was too often used by the watchers around a dead chief to his children, to keep up their incessant wailing for their father. 187. Ka tata ki a koe nga taru o Tura ! The weeds of Tura are near thee ! Meaning: Thou art getting grey-haired. Tura was a grey-headed man of old; his story is a highly curious one. 188. Ka ruha te kupenga, ka pae kei te akau. When the fishing-net gets old, it is drifted on the shore. Said by an old woman to her husband who neglects her. Another of similar meaning :— 189. He kaha ano, ka motumotu ! A rope indeed, but become old and broken up ! Meaning: My beauty and strength are gone, I can no longer serve you, You love a younger wife, 142 Transactions.—Miscellaneous, Another of like meaning :— 190. Kua pae nei hoki, te koputunga ngaru ki te one. The white foam of the surf is cast up and left on the shore. Said by a woman getting grey-haired, when her husband seeks a new wife. 191. Ka tangi te pipiwharauroa, ko nga karere a Mahuru The cries of the glossy cuckoo are the heralds of warmth (or spring). The little cuckoo (Cuculus lucidus) is a migratory bird, and arrives here in early summer. 192. Penei me te pipiwharauroa. Like the glossy cuckoo (in his actions). : Applied to a man who deserts his children ; as this bird (like the English cuckoo) lays its eggs in another bird’s nest, and deserts them. I give now a few (out of many) short and beautiful proverbial sayings, mostly poetical, and used by the New Zealanders in their songs :— 198. Me he korokoro tuii ! As eloquent as the throat of the tuii (the sweet-singing “ parson- ird ""). 194. Me he manu au e kakapa ! I'm all of a flutter like a poor caught bird ! 195. Me he mea ko Kopu ! (She is) as beautiful as the rising of the morning star ! .196. Me he takapu araara. As beautiful as the silvery, iridiscent belly of the araara fish (Carane georgianus) when first caught Ancient European poets have thus spoken of the dolphin. 197. Me he toroa ngungunu! Like an albatross folding its wings up neatly. Used of a neat and compact placing of one’s flowing mats or garments. 198. Me te Oturu ! Her eyes as large and brilliant as the full moon rising over the dark hills in a clear sky. 199. Me te rangi ka paruhi. Just like a delightful tranquil day ; or, a fine calm evening. 200. Moku ano enei ra, mo te ra ka hekeheke; he rakau ka hinga ki te mano wai! Let these few days be for me, for the declining sun ; a tree falling through many floods of waters. Meaning : Be kind and considerate to the aged. Used by the old, and often with effect; of which I knew a remarkable instance that happened in 1852, when Mr. Donald M‘Lean, the Land Pur- chase Commissioner, paid the chief Te Hapuku, the first moneys for lands CoLenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 143 at Hawke's Bay. An old chief, named Te Wereta, who resided at Wharau- rangi, between Castle Point and Cape Palliser, uttered these words, and he got a lion's share of that money—and he lived more than twenty years after. . Another of similar meaning :— 201. Maaku tenei, ma te ra e too ana. He aha kei a koe? Kei te ra e huru ake ana. Leave this for me, for the setting sun. Why shouldst thou care about it ? the sun just sprouting up (or beginning life). I scarcely recollect a single instance of those words being advanced by the aged, (in former years), and not heeded by the younger folks. It always seemed, to me, to form an admirable trait in their character ; one, no doubt, grounded on ancient custom. 202. Whangaia ta taaua tuahine, he tangi i a taaua. Let our little sister be fed and nourished, to mourn over you and me (when we die). Meaning : That a widow's mourning is soon over, for she marries again ; but with a sister it is lasting and true. This is also eminently shown in the Greek tragedies, by Antigone and Electra:— Sophocles. 208. Taku hei piripiri, taku hei mokimoki, taku hei tawhiri, taku katitaramea. My necklace of scerfted moss; my necklace of fragrant fern; my necklace of odorous shrubs; my sweet-smelling locket of Taramea. This affectionate and pretty distich was often sung to a little child when fondling it, expressive of love. A short explanation may be given of the four plants mentioned in it. Piripiri is a fine horizontal moss-like Hepatice (Lophocolea nove-zealandie and other allied species) found in the dense forests; Mokimoki is the fern Doodia caudata ; Tawhiri is the shrub, or small tree, Pittosporum tenuifolium; Taramea is the Alpine plant Aciphylla colensoi. From the two last a fragrant gum was obtained ; that, however, from the needle-pointed Aciphylla only through much ceremony, labour, and trouble,—and, I may say, pain,—gently indicated in the prefix given to it in the chaunt—sati — sudden sharp prick, or puncture. All those scents were much prized by the New Zealanders, who wore them in little sachets suspended to their necks. 204. E iti noa ana, na te aroha. (The gift) is very small indeed, still (it is given) from love. 205. To Kakawai ngako nui, aroaro tahuri kee. Ah! you take my fine fat Kahawai fish (Arripis salar), but you turn away your face from me. . Applied to one who receives presents, but returns no love. 144 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. 206. He manu aute e taea te whakahoro ! A flying-kite made of paper mulberry bark can be made to fly fast! (away, by lengthening the cord). Used by a lover, expressive of impatience at not being able to get away to see the beloved one. 207. Na to tamahine ka pai i takina mai ai tenei kekeno ki konei. It was thy exceedingly pretty daughter which drew this seal to land here. This speaks for itself, and would be doubly suitable for such a person coming by sea; in the olden times most visits were made by water. N.B.—The verb taki (pass. takina), means to forcibly draw a captured fish to land out of the water. 208. E kimi ana i nga kawai i toro ki tawhiti. (He is) seeking after the tips of running branches which extended to a distance. ; Used with reference to any one claiming distant or lost relationship. N.B.—The terms used for runners, or running branchlets, and their spreading, are taken from those of trailing plants, as the convolvulus, gourd, etc. 209. E raro rawakore, e rumga tinihanga. t Poor and without goods are those of the North ; abounding in wealth are those of the South. This proverb, which in former times I have often heard is used, is peculiarly a Northern one, and requires explanation. The most esteemed goods—the real personal wealth of the ancient New Zealanders—were greenstone—unworked or worked—as axes, war-clubs, and ornaments ; finely-woven flax garments ; totara canoes ; and feathers of the huia bird (Heteralocha gouldi). These were all obtained from the Southern parts ; so were the skilled carvers in wood (males), and the best weavers of first quality flax garments (females), who were sometimes made prisoners of war. 210. He karanga kai, tee karangatia a Paeko; he karanga taua, ka karangatia a Paeko. At a call to a feast, Paeko is not called ; At a call to a fight, Paeko is called. Used evidently by an inferior, though a good man at fighting, ete. Note the name, which may be translated, Keep them off. ** Rich man has many friends ”. 211. E hoki te patiki ki tona puehutanga. The flounder returns to its own thick, muddy water (to hide itself, understood). 212. Puritia to ngarahu kauri ! Keep (to thyself) thy kauri-resin soot ! CorENso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 145 This saying was used when a person was unwilling to give what was asked, the same being some common thing and not at all needed by the owner. Soot from burning Aauri-resin (a genuine lamp-black !) was carefully collected in a very peculiar manner and only by much pains, and buried in the earth placed in a hollowed soft-stone, where it was kept for years, and said to improve in quality by age; it was used as a black pigment in tattooing. But there is a double meaning here, viz.: You may never require it, or live to use it! 218. Waiho noa iho nga taonga; tena te mana o Taiwhanake. — Leave (your) goods anywhere; here is the power and might of the Rising-tide. Used to strangers, to show, that the people of the place were honest, etc., and under their chief, who is figuratively called the Overwhelming Sea or Rising-tide. 214 Te aute tee whawhea ! The paper mulberry bark is not blown away by the winds. Meaning: Peaceful times ; all going on well; no disturbances. The bark of the paper mulberry shrub, or small tree, (Broussonetia papyri- fera) which was formerly cultivated by the ancient New Zealanders, and used as a kind of white cloth ornament for the hair, was, after being beaten and washed, etc., spread out to dry in small pieces, but only in fine, calm Weather. 215. Haere mai ki Hauraki, te aute tee awhea ! Come hither (to us) to Hauraki, a district in the Thames, where the prepared paper mulberry bark is not blown away (or disturbed) by the winds while drying and bleaching. A proverb of similar meaning to the last one. 216. Haere i mua, i te aroaro o Atutahi. Go before the presence (or rising) of (the star) Atutahi; or, Work away diligently in advance of the appearing (of the star) Atutahi. Formerly used (1.) concerning the proper time of annual friendly visiting, —viz., in the autumn, when food is plentiful, and before the frosts set in; (2.) also (and more commonly), for the early digging and storing securely in their neatly-built storehouses of their precious kumara crop, on which so much depended; which roots if but slightly touched by frost, rotted. The star Atutahi* rises in April, and was to them indicative of the season of approaching frosts. * See a future paper on the astronomical lore of the old New Zealanders. 12 146 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. 217. Hehua pona nui ! Rehua (causing) big joints ! Rehua is one of the larger planets (possibly Mars or J upiter), and when seen in summer, in time of heats and droughts, this saying is used ; as then men grow thin (substantial vegetable food being scarce), and their joints protrude and look large. Rehua is a famed star (planet) with the old New Zealanders,—many things are said of it; some of which, however, belong to a noted chief of that name of the olden time. (Vide proverb 161, ante). 218. Takurua hupe nui ! Takurua (causing) watery nose ! This saying is in opposition to the last one, conveyed in the same semi- metrical manner, and is highly expressive of the cold raw weather in winter. Takurua being also one of their names for the winter season (indeed with the Southern Maoris the only one), at which time the old Maoris, slightly clothed, must have suffered much annoyance in the way alluded to. Takurua* is the name of a star which rises in the winter. 219. Ka mate he tete, ka tupu he tete. One duck dies, another duck is hatched. (Spatula variegata.) Meaning : Man dies, and another comes in his place. Reminding of Homer (Iliad VI.) :—'* As is the race of leaves, such is that of men; one springs up and the other dies." And of our English saying :— ** As good fish in the sea as ever came out of it. 220. He huruhuru te manu ka vere: he ao te rangi ka uhia. When the bird has feathers it flies away ; when the sky has clouds it is obscured. Lit. The fledged bird flies; the clouded sky (is) covered. Meaning: Great changes soon arise. Circumstances alter cases. XIII. A FEW very BRIEF AND PITHY Savings (AS A SAMPLE). 221. Hae totara — Forehead as hard as the totara wood. Spoken of a liar; and of an unabashed, shameless person. Equivalent io our English Brazen-face. 222. Tou tirairaka — Flycatcher’s tail (Rhipidura flabellifera). Said of a restless person who does not sit quietly in his place at their more important meetings. 223. Arero rua — Double tongue. 224, Ngakau rua = Double mind. Both spoken of a false promiser; of a person who says one thing, yet means another. 225. He ringa whiti! A quiek ready hand, at reaching out, across, or over. * Note on preceding page. Cotznso.—On a Remarkable Cavern at Tolaga Bay. 147 226. He tangata tunu huruhuru ! One who roasts (his bird or rat) with its feathers or hair on. Both said of a hasty quarrelsome person. 227. Ka kata a Kae! — Kae laughs. Sure to be said when a cross person smiles ; or when a person discloses unintentionally his thoughts. Derived from their old legends.* . Whakawaewae wha! Make (thyself) four legs (first) ! Used, ironically, to a person who boasts of what he can do. 229. Nya huruhuru o oku waewae — Hairs of my legs. Used reciprocally : (1) By a chief, of his tribe and followers ; and (2) by them of him, by merely changing the pronoun oku to ona. In this latter sense I have known it to be used beautifully and with great effect. 230. Ka rua hoki! — Twice also ! Meaning : Thou hast just said the contrary ; two (opposite statements) indeed ! 231. Naana ki mua = He began it. A sentence of great service formerly, in relating quarrels, ete., and always highly exculpatory. 232. He kowhatu koe? and, He kuri koe ? Art thou a stone? and, Art thou a dog ? Used, generally, interrogatively, by way of prohibition, disapproval, ete., _ but, sometimes, with care, indicatively. 288. He o kaakaa ! A small bit of food fora journey. Lit. A parrot's morsel for its flight. The old Maoris said, that the parrots always carried with them in one claw à small stone which they constantly nibble. 234. He marutuna !—Bruised or squashed eels! Said of any person or thing, ugly, displeasing, or repulsive. 235. He kupu matangerengere ! A harsh or disagreeable word, sentence, or speech. Lit. A word (having a) hideously ulcerated face. Art. VIIL——A few Remarks on a Cavern near ** Cooks Well,” at Tolaga Bay, and on a tree (Sapota costata), found there, By W. Corzwso, F.L.S. [Read before the Hawke’s Bay Philosophical Institute, 8th September, 1879.] In reading Professor Von Haast’s address to the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, New Zealand,} which contains a full account of some ** pecu- * See Grey's Polynesian Mythology, p. 90. + Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. X., pp. 37-54, 148 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. liar ancient rock-paintings in a cave or rock shelter in the Weka Pass” ranges in that provincial district, accompanied by a plate of the same,—I, at once, thought on what Polack had written, some forty years ago, of some drawings he had noticed in a cave at Tolaga Bay, where Cook had landed and watered in peace. And, bearing also in mind, what a few of the oldest Maoris there had personally told me of Cook, on my first visit to Tolaga Bay, in January, 1838 (when I also saw the hull of Polack’s broken vessel), I, naturally, very much wished to know more of this cavern and its draw- ings; likewise of a very peculiar tree growing there, which Polack also particularly mentions. And finding that my friend, Mr. Locke, who is also a member of our Society, was going thither last summer, I requested him to ascertain, by personal inspection, all he could as to the cavern and its drawings, and the tradition about it, and, also, the said tree; and, if pos- sible, to bring me—on his return to Napier—a specimen of this latter. This, I am happy to be able to say, Mr. Locke has since done ; but before Igive you his information, I will just quote from Polaek's work, as his remarks here are good and brief. Polack says: '*Kani* requested me to accompany him next day to Opoutama, near the south entrance of the bay, where we should walk over the same ground and native paths that existed in the time of Cook, and which had been traversed by him. The following morning we did so * * * Boon after our landing we reached the indent of Opoutama, beauti- fully situated in a dell, encircled by rising hills covered with a variety of shrubby trees. * * * * One tree was pointed out to me as peculiar to this spot, and stated by the natives who accompanied me, and whose resi- dences were at far distant settlements on the coast, as growing only in this valley ; it was in height thirty-five feet, with spreading branches, frondif- erous, and of a similar colour to a species of Phyllanthus that is found in large quantities near the beach. The tree is nuciferous, and bore at the time clusters of early berries, which, when in a mature state, are dried by the natives, and used as beads." * The chief now wound his way up the side of the hill, followed by myself and the friends who aecompanied us. We were arrested in our progress half way by a cavern (ana), which stopped our further progress. Its arch was remarkably high, but of little depth ; it was similarly argillaceous as the caves we had seen below in the bay. Kani enquired if I felt grati- fied, adding : * E koro, tenei ano te ana no Tupaea’ = This, friend, 1s Tupaea's cavern. I learnt that in this cave the favourite interpreter of Cook slept * Te Kaniotakirau, prim prineipal chief. I, also, saw him on sev veral occasions; his father, Rangitumamao, did not see Cook, but his grandfather, Whakatataraoterangi, who was then the prineipal chief there, epe CorgNso.— On a Remarkable Cavern at Tolaga Bay. 149 with the natives :—‘ he was often in the habit of doing so during the heats of the day with his native friends, as is the wont of the New Zealanders,’ said my conductor ;—‘ Tupaea was a great favourite with our fathers, so much so, that to gratify him, several children who were born in the village, during his sojourn among us, were named after him.'* A few yards in front of the cave is a small hole that was dug in the granite (sic) rock, by order of Cook, for receiving from a small spring the fluid that unceasingly flows into it. The marks of the pick-axe are as visible, at the present day, as at the period it was excavated under Cook's eye. The water had over- flowed this useful little memorial of our illustrious countryman, was pellucid and very cold. The sun had not penetrated this sequestered spot for many years, from the umbrageous kahikatoa and other trees that surround it. ** Around the surface of the cavern are many native delineations, executed with charcoal, of ships, canoes sailing, men and women, dogs and pigs, etc., drawn with tolerable accuracy. Above our reach, and evidently faded by time, was the representation of a ship and some boats, which were unani- mously pointed out to me, by all present, as the productions of the faithful Tahitian follower of Cook, (Tupaea). This, also, had evidently been done with similar materials. "This cavern is made use of as a native resting place for the night, as the villages of Uawa are at some considerable distance from Opoutama; it is mostly in request by parties fishing for the Koura (erawfish) and other fish, which abound in all these bays." Mr. Locke visited the cavern and inspected it, and found that while it bore ample marks of old ‘delineations” such were so worn and defaced by the incessant action of the elements, and also so high over head, as to be scarcely discernible. The traditions, however, of the Maoris, respecting them and the place, were quite in keeping with Polack's relation. The perennial spring was still there, and bore its old and never-to-be-forgotten name of ** Te wai kari a Tupaea” (the well dug by Tupaea).1 Mr. Locke also brought me a branch of the said single tree, which at the time of his visit was unfortunately neither in flower nor fruit. However, it was sufficient for me to identify it as being Sapota costata, a tree which I had first noticed in flower at Whangarei Bay, in 1836, and in fruit at Whangaruru Bay, further north, in 1841. It had been also found by Mr. R. Cunningham, still further north, in 1834, on the shores opposite the Cavalhos Islands, between the Bay of Islands and Whangaroa, and it has since been also found at Kawau, and on some other of the islets in the Frith of the * On my arrival in New Zealand I found several natives bearing his name, mostly on ihe East Coast, ) tA further proof of the term by which Cook and his first visit to New Zealand was everywhere known. Vide Trans, N, Z. Inst., Vol. XI., p. 108, 150 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Thames ; but this is the only instance of this tree being found so far south, and I am inclined to think this to be its utmost south range; the genus, and indeed the whole Natural Order, being tropical plants. The Maoris informed Mr. Locke that another tree of this kind grew also at Kaiawa, a little further north, and that anciently the fruit, or seed, was used as beads for necklaces: for which purpose, and by a rude people, they were pretty well adapted, from their uniform size, and possessing an agreeable glossy appearance, and having a small hole at the end in the testa, which might also have given birth to the notion of boring and threading. As I find that Sir J. D. Hooker, in describing this genus, Sapota, has spoken of its fruit as a ** berry with one nut-like seed,"* I will also give my short description of it, as written on detecting it (a second time), 36 years ago; as such may be of service to future botanical collectors and observers: ** On the high south headland of Whangaruru Bay, near which we landed, I discovered a clump of small trees bearing a handsome fruit of the size of a large walnut. Each fruit contained three large shining seeds, somewhat erescent-shaped, and having the front as it were scraped away. Its leaves are oblong, glabrous, and much veined, and its young branches lactescent. I have little doubt but that this tree will be found to rank in the Natural Order Sapotacez, and probably under the genus Achras. The natives call it Tawaapou.” + This, qim ‘was its name as given by the Maoris of Tolaga Bay to Mr. Locke. Arr. IX.— Notes on an ancient Manufactory of Stone Implements at the mouth of the Otokai Creek, Brighton, Otago. By Pror, Junius von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S., Director of the Canterbury Museum. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Tth August, 1879.] . Amonest the many localities where traces of the former occupation by a native race are open to our inspection, there is one of some interest situated on the small islet at the mouth of the Otokai Creek, Brighton, Otago, upon which I wish to offer a few observations, This islet is surrounded by the sea during high water, but it is evident, when the natives were here encamped, that the narrow channel now cutting it off from the mainland did not then exist. * Handbook, N. Z. Flora, p. 183. t Vide Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science, (1843) Vol. II. p. 299, Haast-—On an dneient Manufactory of Stone Implements. 151 At that time it doubtless formed part of the mainland, as shown by the kitchen-middens and rude stone implements, flakes, and cores appearing exposed on both sides of the nearly vertical cliffs, in positions corresponding with each other. This locality is the more interesting, as it belongs doubtless to an inter- mediate period, when the Moa had already become extinct, and when possibly cannibalism had begun to be first indulged in. The Otokai kitchen-middens are, therefore, different from those existing near the mouth of the Kaikorai Creek, some six miles to the north, situated amongst the remarkable sand-dunes, which cover here an area of more than a square mile, and ascending to an altitude of 300 feet on the southern slopes of Otago Peninsula. At the.foot of these sand-dunes, and fronting the northern banks of the Kaikorai Creek estuary, a well-defined line of kitchen-middens lies about five feet above high-water mark, having a thickness of from several inches to more than one foot. These kitchen-middens consist mostly of shells, of which Chione stutch- buryi and Mesodesma nova-zealandie are the most numerous. It is remark- able that these shells are nearly twice the size of those now inhabiting the Kaikorai estuary. In addition, Mytilus smaragdinus is well represented, but it is rather smaller than the same species found at present near the coast close by. Amphibola avellana and some others are also occurring in more or less large quantities. Amongst these shells Moa bones are scattered here and there. They are broken, often burnt, and have doubtless been deposited con- temporaneously with the shells. It is thus evident that the Moas had already become so scarce that they only occasionally could be obtained, and the natives had to look towards getting other food as a regular means of - Jm. However, it is to be expected that more towards the centre of e sand-dunes, older deposits proving human occupancy exist, and which, as in other localities, will consist almost exclusively of the remnants of the extinct Dinornithide. Stone implements in the same locality are not scarce. They consist of very rude adzes and knives, mostly chipped from basaltic boulders obtained in the neighbourhood; however, similar tools made of flint, chert, quartz, and chalcedony are also represented. Some few perfect and more numerous broken polished stone implements, together with whetstones and other polishing materials, were also obtained. Although I could devote only one day to an examination of this interesting locality, I was enabled to obtain a good insight into the character and position of the kitchen-middens under review, being fortunately guided by Mr. F. L. Jeffcoat of Winchendon, who lives close by, under Stony Hill, 152 Transactions.—M iscellaneous. and who has devoted a considerable time to the study of these ethnological questions. : Returning from this digression to the Otokai Creek Islet, I may observ that it consists of mica schist, with numerous segregations of quartz, by which the rock has become so hardened that it has resisted successfully the fury of the surf breaking here against the coast. These rocks rise at an average of fifteen feet above high-water mark, and are covered by five to six feet of loess, above which about twelve inches of vegetable soil has accu- mulated. At the junction of the two last-mentioned beds, quite a thick layer of cores, implements, flakes, and chips exists, all manufactured from hard ba- saltic boulders, having been collected along the beach, derived from Cragg’s Hill and the other basaltic cones in the neighbourhood. This deposit is from three to six inches thick. Besides this manufactured material, some large flat boulders of basalt were lying amongst it, having doubtless been used as working tables by the ` savage artificers, while long, thin, and roundish boulders of mica schist, close to them, had evidently been employed as flaking-tools or fabricators. No signs of polished stone implements, nor of polishing material of any kind were discovered in the ditch, about two feet broad and thirty feet long, which I dug in that locality, in company with my friend, Mr. Robert Gillies, F.L.S., of Dunedin, whose hospitality and assistance I enjoyed last summer, during the time these excavations were undertaken. However, only a small portion of this ground was examined, and I have no doubt that a great deal of valuable information is still hidden from us in that spot. There is great probability that many, if not all the more perfect specimens in the form of adzes, were destined to be polished at a more pro- pitious season and in a more favourable locality. On the other hand, the form and finish of a number of knives, saws, drills, and spear-heads, suggest that they were used in this more primitive condition. Only a few shells and bones were mixed with these remnants of the stone manufactory, but immediately above them, and reaching to the roots of the luxuriant sward of grass covering the ground, and often to a thickness of six to eight inches, kitehen-middens had been deposited. They consist of bones of seals, dogs, and of a variety of birds and fishes of all sizes, even the smallest kinds having evidently been used as food. As stated in the beginning, not the least sign of Moa bones was met with. Amongst these kitchen-middens two portions of a human femur belonging to à young individual were found , the bone had evidently been broken when fresh. As there was not the least sign of any other human bone amongst the large amount of kitchen-middens exposed and examined, it would be prema- Srack.—On the Colour-Sense of the Maori. 158 ture to conclude from the presence of these two fragments, that tho visitors to that locality were already addicted to cannibalism. Possibly the bone may have belonged to a stranger or to a slave, having been broken at the time of death to be used for making tools. I have no doubt that further researches which Mr. R. Gillies intends to make in this spot, will throw more light on this subject. The only other specimen of human workmanship found amongst this layer of refuse is a small fish-hook made of bone. It is of a very primitive form, unlike any other I have hitherto obtained elsewhere. Of other material of the manufactory layer, there were a few small pieces of flint and chalcedonic quartz, cores, thrown away as useless. Art. X.—Notes on the Colour-Sense of the Maori. By James W. STACK. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th September, 1879.] Tam indebted to Captain Hutton for calling my attention to a discussion, which took place a short time ago, between Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Pole, with reference to the colour-sense of the Greeks. The question was raised by Mr. Gladstone, in the October number of the “Nineteenth Century” (1877), and his statements were subsequently reviewed by Mr. William Pole, in an article which appeared in the October number of ** Nature" (1878), under the title of ** Colour-Blindness in relation to the Homerie Expressions for Colour." Mr. Gladstone maintains that the organ of colour was only partially developed among the Greeks of the heroic age; and supports his opinion by many examples drawn from the Homerie poems. Mr. Pole, on the other hand, maintains that Homer was eolour-blind, and proceeds to establish his views by evidence drawn from his own sensations of colour, which coineide in a remarkable degree with the colour-expressions in Homer, as interpreted by Mr. Gladstone. The question raised is one full of interest, both to the scholar and to the naturalist, whether as regarded from its bearing on the controversy respecting the authorship of the Homeric poems, or on the development of a human sense within a period of time known to history. But I shall not presume to follow the arguments of either of these learned writers upon the question in dispute between them, neither my scholarship nor my acquaintance with the subject would entitle me to do so. Mine is the more modest task of furnishing such facts regarding the colour- sense of the Maoris, as have come under my observation, during more than 18 154 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. thirty years’ residence amongst them ; a knowledge of which may in some small degree assist those who have undertaken the solution of this very interesting problem. It may help to render my paper more intelligible, if I state briefly what Mr. Gladstone calls the stages of the historical development of the colour- sense. The starting point is an absolute blindness of colour in the primitive man. The First stage attained is that at which the eye becomes able to distin- guish between red and black. In the Second stage, the sense of colour becomes completely distinct from the sense of light ; both red and yellow, with their shades, are clearly discerned. In the Third stage, green is discernible. In the Fourth and last stage an acquaintance with blue begins to emerge. What stage had the colour-sense of the Maori reached before inter- course with Europeans began ? This can readily be ascertained by reference to the terms existing in the language at that date, for giving expression to the sense of colour. We find, upon examination, that the language possessed very few words that conveyed to the mind an idea of colour, apart from the object with which the particular colour was associated. There are only three colours for which terms exist, namely, white, black, and red. White, ma (sometimes tea—very limited application). Black, pouri, pango, mangu. Red, whero, kura, ngangana. If we analyse these words they seem all to relate to the presence or absence of sunlight. Ma is doubtless a contraction for Marama, light, which is derived from Ra, the sun. Pouri, black, is derived from Po, night. The derivation of pango and mangu is not so apparent, but I venture to think that both whero and kura may be traced to Ra. Mais not only the term for whiteness and clearness, but also for all the lighter tints of yellow, grey, and green. Grey hair is called hina, but the term was never used to desig- nate anything else but hair; every other grey object was either ma or pango, as it inclined to a lighter or darker shade. To express blackness three terms exist, pouri, pango, and mangu. The night was pouri,and any very dark tint might be expressed by the same word. Pourt and Marama were constantly used to express opposite mental conditions. Pango and mangu were applied indiscriminately to describe anything black; the former word seems to approach closely to a true colour Srack.—On the Colour-Sense of the Maori. 155 term, as, unlike mangu,* it does not carry with it the idea of relative luminosity. To express the quality of redness we find whero, kura, ngangana, uraura, mumura, and in addition to these huru kehu to describe red hair, and kokowai, red ochre ; but neither of these words was ever applied to describe redness in anything but human hair and ochre. All the words for expressing redness, except ngangana, may I think be traced to Ra, and connect the Maori idea of that colour with the brilliant rays of the sun. Ngangana is not the word generally used to express the quality of redness, but only certain appearances of it, as in flowers or blood-shot eyes. “Ka hete nyangana o te puawai o te rata! = How brilliant is the crimson of the rata flowers!" Whero is the most commonly used term. Kura is used very often instead of whero to describe redness in any inani- mate object, and is figuratively applied to anythiug very highly prized, probably because the scarlet feathers of the kaka, which were highly prized, were called kura. It is worthy of remark that raukura is the word for feathers. Rau means leaf, and also thatch, from leaves being used for thatching. Was the term kura for red suggested by the brilliant plumage of tropical birds ? Ura — redness, and mumura — flame, were employed to describe the flushing cheek of the warrior, or the heightened colour of the maiden. Red was the sacred colour with which sacred places and things were painted, and with which chiefs adorned their persons. Yellow and green were recognized, not as abstract conceptions of colour, but only as they are associated with objects. Puakowhai, or kowhai flower, is the term which represents yellow ; but waipakurakura is sometimes applied to yellow liquids with an orange tint — reddish-yellow. Kakariki or kakawariki — green. It is worthy of remark that the word representing green has no reference to the hue of the bird's plumage, it means literally, little parrot. This word, slightly altered to kakawariki, means green lizard; and I have sometimes heard kawakawa used to describe green. Pounamu or greenstone, of which there are at least six varieties, (each known by a name descriptive of the particular tint by which it is dis- tinguished) is sometimes used now asa colour term. — Karupounamu = green- eyed, is the term applied to persons with light-coloured hazel eyes, but I never heard pounamu used to describe the colour of the sea, some hues of which it exactly resembles. Although the New Zealand flora is so rich in its varied tints of green, no impression of its prevailing colour seems to * Ink was mangumangu, also ngarahu = ash, but the latter word conveyed no idea of colour. Ink for tattooing was called ngarahu because made with pine-ash, hence our ink came to be called ngarahu 156 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. have been made upon the colour organs of the Maori. The word matomato, often employed to express the idea of greenness in vegetation, signifies lux- uriance, and whatever colour-impression it conveyed to the mind would be associated with the idea of luxuriant growth. Blue was not formerly recognized, as no word exists to represent it. Anything blue was classed with black, and went under the heading of pouri, or pango, or mangu. The blue depths of ocean and sky were pouri, or dark. At the suggestion of Europeans, the indigo-blue plumage of the pakura (Porphyrio melanotus,) is sometimes employed to indicate the colour, which before intercourse with Europeans was unrecognized. No words are found in the Maori language to express violet, brown, orange, and pink colours; but there are no less than three words to express pied or speckled objects. ^ Kopurepure — reddish speckle; Kotingotingo = dark speckle; tongitongi — spotted. The limited number of colour-expressions that exist in the Maori lan- guage, cannot be attributed to the absence of objects presenting those colours for which the terms are wanting. If nowhere else, at least in the rainbow, they were frequently to be seen. But the Maoris appear to have had very vague ideas respecting these colours. While they regarded the rainbow as a divinity, and spoke of its exceeding beauty, they do not seem to have perceived, much less to have separated, its prismatic colours; to their organ of sight, it presented one characteristic tint, and that was ma, or allied to light. Its effect upon the eye was described as aniwaniwa, or dazzling. Further proof of their imperfect perception of colour is furnished by the fact that the Maoris have never shown any real appreciation of floral charms. It is true that the kowhai ngutukaka, which was said to have been imported from Hawaiki, was occasionally cultivated for the sake of its scarlet flowers, but it is equally true that flowers generally were - despised, and the greatest astonishment was expressed by Maoris in the early days, when they observed the pains taken by colonists to cultivate” any but flowers of the gaudiest hues. The ornamental scroll-work, and the elaborate patterns employed in tat- tooing and carving, showed that the Maoris were capable of appreciating the beautiful, both in form and in colouring, and we can only account for their indifference to the more delicate tints of flowers which call forth our ad- bisce by supposing that their colour-sense was not so well educated as ik Maori literature is very limited, we fortunately possess a few standard works, which will always serve for reference, whenever a question may arise as to the meaning of any word in the language. One of the most reliable of these is the translation of the Bible; the work of Archdeacon Srack.—On the Colour-Sense of the Maori. 157 Maunsell, LL.D., a sound Hebrew and Greek scholar, and one whose know- ledge of idiomatic Maori is perfect. A few references from his translation of colour-expressions, will assist those unacquainted with the Maori language to verify the statements I have made. The Greek words are from the Septuagint, the English from the Authorized Version, and the Maori from Dr. Maunsell’s translation. Red—Exd. xxy., 5, npv0podarwpeva = dyed red = whakawhero. Scarlet—Is. 1., 18, ġowwovy = scarlet = ngangana. Crimson—Is. 1., 18, coxcvov = crimson = whero me te mea whakawhero. Purple— Esth. 1., 6, moppvporc = purple = papura (this is only Maoricized English). Green—Esth. 1., 6, guapa yàcrov = green = kirini (Maoricized English). Greenish—Lev. xmm., 49, xAwpcfovca= greenish = ma kakariki. Blue—Ex. xxv., 4, $axw0ov = blue — puuru (Maoricized English). Yellow—Lev. xm., 80, fav@:Zovea—= yellow = ma kowhai. Ps. xvm., 18, XAwpornri = yellow = whero. Brown—Gen. xxx., 82, ġarov = brown = tongitongi, (really, spotted.) Vide Gen. xxxr, 8. where rowa, translated “speckled” in English, is rendered wAai tongitongi in Maori; and again gator, rendered “brown” in English, is rendered pakaka (or kaka colour) in Maori. White—Is. 1., 18, Xevxavyw — white —ma. Black—Zech. vr., 6, ueXavec = black — mangu. Job m., 5, exoroc —darkness = pouri. Mr. Gladstone says: ** Colours were for Homer not facts but images ; his words describing them are figurative words, borrowed from natural objects, in truth colours are things illustrated rather than described; " and he supports this opinion by quoting such expressions as rose-colour, wine- colour, bronze-colour, fire-colour, ete. As we find exactly the same method of expressing colour adopted by the Maoris, who spoke of kowhai-flower colour, little-parrot colour, we may conclude that their knowledge of colour was in a state of progression. The evidence afforded by the expressions used to distinguish yellow and green, shows that, at one period of their existence, yellow and green were confounded with the lighter shades of black and white. When the kowhai received its name, it was not on account of its colour, and when the parrakeet was named, it was its size, and not its colour, which attracted attention. It was after becoming acquainted with the kowhai, and little parrot, that they learnt to discriminate the colours. They then ceased to regard objects as merely luminous or non- luminous, but they had not yet realized the existence of colour as a quality apart from the object with which it was associated in the mind. They 158 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. appear to have reached the third stage of colour-sense development, when all at once the arrival of Europeans revealed to them the entire scale of colours possessed by the highest races of mankind. But although even elderly natives can now readily distinguish blue and brown, as distinct from each other, and from black, I do not think that any of the race see violet, magenta, orange, or any of the paler tints of any colour as we do. I have already alluded to the esthetic taste of the Maori; their employment of such colours as they knew—red, black, and white—in scroll-painting and other kinds of decorative art, never offended the eye, and the effect produced was always pleasing. But no one can say so now their range of colours is so much wider. They seem to have lost all sense of harmony in colouring, and to be blind to the hideous effects their false combinations produce. While only a few have had an opportunity of seeing the glaring mistakes made by the uninstructed native painters, in the use of varied colours, most persons have had an opportunity of observing the incongruous colours in which a Maori belle arrays herself, when seeking to attract admiration in our streets. Her mode of adornment proves that her sense of colour is still very defec- tive. She knows each colour by name, but she has an imperfect mental conception of it, and therefore cannot realize what a fright she makes herself by wearing colours that will not harmonize. The sensations produced by colours upon the organs of the colour-blind, are thus described by Mr. Pole :—‘‘ They see white, and black, and grey, just like other people, provided they are free from alloy with other colours. Yellow and blue they see, if unalloyed; and these are the only two, except- ing black and white, of which they have any sensation. Red is merely yellow, shaded with black or grey ; and green, orange, and violet, are con- founded with black, red, white, and grey." On comparing Mr. Pole's remarks with the evidence submitted in this paper, it will be seen that the Maoris were not colour-blind. For although, in common with the colour-blind, they confounded the lighter tints of several different colours, they, unlike them, could distinguish red and green, and were blind to blue. The rapidity with which they have learnt to distinguish the colours un- recognized by them till pointed out by Europeans, seems to indicate that their want of previous perception was not the result of imperfect organ- ization, but only of imperfect education. The only apparent difference between the Maori organ for discerning colour and that of the European was, that it was less cultivated. Srack.—On Cameron’s Theory respecting the Kahui Tipua. 159 Art. XI.—Remarks on Mr. Mackenzie Cameron’s Theory respecting the Kahui Tipua. By James W. Srack. (Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th September, 1879.] Mr. Mackenzie Cameron’s extremely interesting communication, addressed to Dr. Von Haast,* proves the importance of securing as large a collection as possible of the obsolete phrases and technical terms employed in the mystic rites of the’Maori race. For it is highly probable, as I have had occasion before to remark, that the secret of this people’s origin lies hidden in those now unintelligible terms, a secret to be hereafter revealed by the researches of the philologist. The ingenious theory founded upon the few names by which the earliest inhabitants of these islands are known, is unsupported, as far as I am in a position to judge, by existing traditions, but that is no reason for rejecting the theory altogether. The fact that the words have lost their original meaning, though it may lessen, does not destroy their value to the philologist, who, if in possession of the symbol, may recover the idea it was once formed to express. The resemblance between the traditions relating to the Kahui Tipua and some of the native myths of European and other nations, is so striking, that it seems necessary to place them under the same category. It would seem as if the sight of certain objects, or combinations of objects in nature, invariably suggested the same train of ideas to men who had only reached that stage of mental progress in which the imagination is stronger than the reason. These thoughts have found expression in wild and fantastic legends, in which whirlpools are transformed into voracious marine mon- sters, fountains into fair nymphs, mountains into enchanted giants. Such legends must, therefore, be very carefully handled by those who employ them to trace historical events. Before considering Mr. Cameron’s derivation of the name Kahui Tipua, it will be worth while to examine some of the principal legends extant relating to this mythical people. Those relating to Rongo-i-tua, Tamatea, Haumia, and Kopu-wai, will suffice for our purpose. Rongo-i-tua — Fame- from-afar, said to be the first visitant from Hawaiki, is evidently identical with the Rongo mentioned in Mr. Gill’s work, * Myths and Songs of the South Pacific,” as a hero common to Polynesian mythology. He was Fame personified. The Legend of Tamatea’s wives, who were transformed by enchantments into stone, and the story of the impious servant's punishment, embody ideas with which readers of the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments are quite ili The legend was either invented, or adapted from some more * Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XL, p. 154. 160 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. ancient source, to account for the existence of greenstone, which differed from other stone, not only in kind, but in the manner of its distribution ; only being found in particular localities, and only in blocks of small size. Any one familiar with Cook Strait will see the fitness of the name Kaipara-te-hau = The wind-sports, for any headland along its coast. Kopu-wai = Water- stomach, represented as swallowing the enormous volume of water which flows down the channel of the Molyneux, in his attempt to intercept the flight of Kaiamio, seems to point to some convulsion of nature similar to that which occurred some years ago in China, when a chasm opened across the stream of the Yangtsekiang and swallowed up its waters, leaving the channel of the river dry for hundreds of miles. Tue LecGenp or Rowco-r-TUA. Rongo-i-tua (Fame-from-afar) was the first to arrive in this island from Hawaiki. He found the country inhabited by the Kahui Tipua, their chiefs were named Toi, Rauru, Hatoka, Riteka, Rongo-mai, Tahatiti, and Tama- rakai-ora. On seeing the stranger, they ordered food to be set before him ; and the servants brought mamaku, and kauru, and kiekie, and all their choice delicacies, but Rongo-i-tua hardly tasted anything, and presently asked for a kwmete, or bowl of water, to be brought. This he placed behind. him, so as to conceal what he did. Then, unfastening his waist-belt, he took from it some kao, or dried kumaras, which he placed in the bowl, repeating all the time the following incantation :— * u Ka rere, ka rere, te pito nei, Kei te puni puninga, te pito nei, Kei te kore korenga, te pito nei, Kei Maatera, kei Hawaiki." He kept feeling the kumaras, and when they were sufficiently softened, he mashed them into a pulp, and mixing them with the water, handed the bowl to his hosts. When the Kahui Tipua tasted the sweetness of the mixture, they wanted more of the food, and asked their guest where he obtained it; he told them from across the sea. Soon after this, T'ua-kaka- riki, one of their number, found a large totara tree on the beach, cast up by the sea. He measured its length, and found, after extending his arms along it ten times, that he had not reached the end of it. Delighted with his discovery, he hastened back to the pa. In the meantime, Rongo-i-tua reached the beach, and seeing the tree, mounted upon it, and deposited his excrement near the butt of it. When he, afterwards, heard Tua-kakariki claiming the tree by right of prior discovery, he told the people that it could not be claimed by Tua-kakariki, as it belonged to him long before in * He karakia tenei na Rongo-i-tua mo te weteka o te tatua. Ko tenei tatua ko Mauhope - (Fasten-waist) i roto te kumara i a Mau-hope. Sracx.—On Cameron's Theory respecting the Kahui Tipua. 161 Hawaiki, from which place it had followed him ; and that if they went and examined it, they would find his private mark upon it, made before leaving home. The discovery of the excrement settled the question of ownership in favour of Rongo-i-tua. The tree was subsequently split in two, and out of each half a canoe was made; one, called Manuka, because of the disgust expressed at the sight of the excrement,—the other, Arai-te-Uru. Manuka was first finished, and the Kahui Tipua, impatient to possess the kumara, sailed away to Hawaiki in search of it. They obtained a cargo, and returned; but, on planting them, they were disappointed to find that none grew. In the meantime, Rongo-i-tua sailed away on the same errand in Arai-te- Uru. On reaching Whanga ra (sunny cove), the place in Hawaiki where the kumara grew, he ordered his men to surround the chief's house. They heard the people inside repeating the kwmara charms and incantations. * Ah," said Rongo, ‘those karakias are what you need. Learn them." After listening for awhile, he and his men acquired the knowledge they needed to ensure the successful cultivation of the kumara. There were three divinities who presided over the kumara plantations—represented by three posts or sticks, which required to be set up in every field. They were named,—Kahukura (a male), Maui-i-rangi (male), and Marihaka (a female). Before these, the karakia kwmaras were repeated, and little offerings of koromiko leaves presented. Any error made by the tohunga in performing | the sacred rights, while kumaras were being planted or taken up, resulted in the death of the priest, and the destruction of the crop by the offended divinities. Rongo-i-tua sent his canoe back under the command of Pakihiwi- tahi and Hape-ki-tuaraki, while he remained for awhile in Hawaiki. The voyage was safely accomplished, and the cargo partly discharged; but Arai-te- Uru was eventually capsized off Moeraki, and lost, the remains of the cargo being strewn along the coast, where at low-water it may at this day be seen. Rongo, desiring to return, stepped in one day from Hawaiki to Aotea-roa. The Kahui Tipua first saw a rainbow, which suddenly assumed the form of a man, and Rongo stood amongst them ; hence, he was ever afterwards known as Hongo-tikei, or, Rongo, ‘ the Strider.” * The Kumara and Aruhe were the offspring of Huruka and Pani. Aruhe (fern-root) was the ariki, or lord, because it descended from the backbone of its parent; while Kumara having come forth from the front was the inferior in rank. | The husband of Pani wondered greatly how his wife procured their food. . He watched her one day go down into the water and rub the lower part of her stomach, and then he soon afterwards saw her filing baskets with * According to some authorities, this oceurred at his first appearance in New Zealand. 14 162 Transactions.—M iscellaneous. kumaras and fern-root. Ah, he exclaimed, it is from her inside that our - food comes, so the old waiata says: ** Descended from the back, the great root of Rongi, Descend from behind, the fern-root, Descend from the front, the kumara, By Huruki and Pani, Then it was nourished in the mound, The great mound of Whatapu, _ Great mound of Papa, Great mound of Tauranga ; There was seen the contemptuous pikari of Tu, There they were hungered after,” ete., etc. Alarmed for the safety of their children, Huruki and Pani bid them hide themselves; and so Papaka-fern went to the mountains, Kohuruhuru-fern went to the forests to listen to the songs of the birds, Taroa-fern went to the sea-shore to listen to the trampling of the surf, and Papawai-fern went to the river-bank to listen to the eels flopping at night in the water. From the ancient waiatas we learn, that Toi taught people to eat fern-root and the stem of the ti palm; hence the proverb, ** Te kai rakau a Toi" :— That Rongo-i-tua introduced the kumara :—and that Tukete in his canoe, Huruhuru-manu, (bird-feather) achieved the reputation of being, like Kupe and Tamatea, a great navigator. Tue Lecenp or Tama-rea, Pokar WRHENUA. (Fair Son, the Cireumnavigator) Tama-tea, being deserted by his three wives, Hine rau-kawa-kawa, Hine rau-haraki, and Te-kohi-wai, sailed all round the island in search of them. And he shares with Kupe the credit of giving names to the various places along the coast ; the promontory at the base of the On-Lookers, for instance, is known as the Koura fire of Tama, he having landed there to cook craw- fish. On reaching the southern extremity of the island, he continued his voyage up the west coast. At the entrance to every inlet he waited and listened for any sound which might serve to indicate the whereabouts of the runaways. But it was not till he arrived off the mouth of the Arahura river that he heard voices ; he immediately landed, but could not discover his wives, being unable to recognize them in the enchanted stones which strewed the bed of the river, and over which its waters murmuringly flowed. He did not know that the canoe, in which his wives eR ae had capsized at this spot, and that they and the crew had been chang to blocks of stone. Accompanied by his servant, Tamatea proceeded inland towards Mount Kaniere; on the way they stopped to cook some birds which they had killed. While preparing the meal the slave accidentally burnt his finger, which he Sracx.—On Cameron’s Theory respecting the Rahui Tipua. 163 thoughtlessly touched with the tip of his tongue; this act, as he was tapu, was an awful act of impiety, for which he was instantly punished by being trans- formed into a mountain, ever since known by his name, Twmu-aki, Another consequence of his awful crime was that T'amatea never found his wives, whose enchanted bodies furnish the Maori with the highly valued greenstone, the best kind of which is often spoilt by a flaw known as tutae koka, or the dung of the bird the slave was cooking when he licked his burnt finger. Tue Lecenp or Hav-ia. Hau-mia was the son of Kiapara-te-hau (the wind is sporting). He belonged to the Kahui Tipua. At a place called the Kohanga o Hau-mia (nest of Haumia), on the face of a cliff known as Pgri-nui-awhiti (great cliff of Whiti), you may trace the gable of Hau-mia’s house, the upright posts, and the cross battens. It was here that Hau-mia's people tried to stop the canoe of the celebrated navigator Kupe, by placing a reef of rocks in his way, but they did not succeed, as he went far outside them and escaped. For the Legend of Kopu wai and Arai Te Uru, see Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. VIII., 1877. I now turn to the most interesting part of Mr. Cameron’s paper, that relating to the derivation of the names Kahui Tipua, and Ngapuhi. After carefully examining the evidence to hand, I am reluctantly forced to the conclusion that it does not support his hypothesis. The relation existing between the Maori words and similar Indian or Malay words is undeniable, but it is explained by the fact that the races using them have a common origin. When these words are examined, it will be found that their mean- ing must be very much strained to make them fit in with the theory. Kahui Tipua means in Maori a band of terrestrial monsters—an ogre or demon-band. Hui means to congregate; prefixed by the particle ka, it means a herd or flock. Tipua is a poetical form of Tupua, which comes from the verb tupu, to grow; the idea being that the creature so called sprung out of the earth—that it was, in fact, an dvroy@wv. In Archdeacon Williams’s dictionary, one of the meanings given for tupua is steal. This is an associated meaning, and does not belong to the word in its primary sense. Terrestrial monsters being regarded as hostile to man, the word came to be used in the same way that many words are employed by us; as for instance, jockeyed, mesmerized, or macadamized. Tipua is sometimes applied in Maori as we apply monstrous in vico eun Nga Puhi is the other name, which, singularly enough, is almost identical in appearance with the Indian dd meaning serpent-race. But here again, I am inclined to think that the likeness is more apparent than real Nga Puhi is a contraction for Nga-aitanga a te Puhirere, Nga is the 164 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. plural demonstrative particle. Ai tanga means the begotten, a of, te the, Puhirere (name of the father). With all but the last word, there is no need for further enquiry, as Nga cannot be identified in any way with Naga, the great serpent. But what the meaning of Puhirere is, may be open to dis- cussion. Pu has many meanings classed by Williams under headings :— 1. Bunch, heap. 2. To blow. 8. Precise. 4. Loathing. 5. Gun. Puhi, one betrothed; knot on the head ornamented with feathers or flowers. Rere, means to fly. The name Nga Puhi is borne by one of the most powerful tribes in the country, and when the chiefs have been asked about the derivation of their tribal designation, they have explained it, as being derived from the Puhi, or feather-ornaments of the canoe in which their ancestors came from Hawaiki. Puhirere may, I think, be freely rendered: ‘‘ The streaming feather-ornament of the head." Nga Puhi, or Nga aitanga a te Puhirere will then mean, “the begotten of the streaming feather-ornament ;" the ancestor being probably distinghished by some peculiar head-gear. The South Island Nga Puhi were descendants of Awatopa, and consisted of three sections: Puhi kai ariki, Puhi-manawanawa, and Matukuherekoti ; and it was their tribe that succeeded the Kahui Tipua. In connection with the name Puhi, attention is drawn to the fact, that a kind of eel is known by that name, but tuna, and not puhi, is the generic name. Puhi is merely the distinctive name of a variety, and is descriptive of some peculiarity. I do not wish to be understood as criticizing the theory under considera- tion in a hostile spirit—far from it; but I am reluctantly forced to the conclusion, that the evidence furnished by the legends regarding the Kahui Tipua, does not support it. The evidence of the eastern origin of the Maori is daily pnma de and, at the same time, indications are found of the presence, in past ages, of people in these southern lands, who must have differed in many respects from the present inhabitants. The discovery by Sir George Grey* in 1839, of rock-paintings in Australia, which he said could not have been done by the blacks ; and the subsequent discovery near Mount Elephant, in Victoria, of circles of stone resembling Druidical remains; regarded in connection with the gigantie statues in Easter Island, the ancient roadways of masonry in Samoa, and the rock-paintings in our own country, all open up a wide and interesting field for speculation and research, into which it is to be hoped that many like-minded with Mr. Mackenzie Cameron will enter. * Vide Travels in Western Australia, by Sir G. Grey, K.C.B., Vol. Il., p. 201. Porz.—On the Southern Stars and other Celestial Objects. 165 Arr. XII.— Notes on the Southern Stars and other Celestial Objects. By J. H. Pore. [Read before the Otago Institute, 14th October, 1879.] Ts paper embodies the results of observations made during the last eight years. While most of the work is original, yet, when the object described is important, and an account of my observations could not be satisfactorily given without reference to the work done by previous observers, their facts and opinions have been quoted. An apology is scarcely needed for giving a short résumé of the facts known about the great star Alpha Centauri; accordingly, a very brief history of this remarkable object, from Lacaille’s time (1750) to the present, has been given. The instruments used were an 8}-in. reflector, by Browning, and a 4}-in. equatorial of superior quality. The measures of angles and distances have been obtained by the methods described in my paper in last year’s *'Transactions."* The angles of position will, I have little doubt, be found to be good, but the atmosphere has not been steady enough of late to admit of the best use being made of oblique transits. I have, however, little doubt that such measures of distances as are given will be found to be very satisfactory approximations to the truth. For the spectroscopic work recorded in this paper I have used an admirable little star-spectroscope, by Browning. This instrument has enabled me to determine, quite satis- factorily, the class to which the stars examined belong, and, in many instances, to say that the spectrum lines of certain elements are probably present. As, however, the means at my disposal did not permit me to make accurate measures of the positions of lines, my work in this depart- ment should be looked upon as the results, so to speak, of a “ flying- survey," useful perhaps, in its way, but to be superseded when more thorough and accurate determinations can be obtained. It should be stated, however, that, while depending on eye estimation alone, it would be very unsafe for an observer to say, that a conspicuous line, for instance, in the greenish blue of the spectrum of a certain star was cer- tainly the F. hydrogen line; yetit is unlikely that a practised eye, one trained to recognize the position of certain lines in spectra that have been already measured, could be mistaken, in any large proportion of cases, in picking out, say, the principal Fraunhofer lines in a stellar spectrum. On the whole, it seems to me that such determinations as are given in this paper, are not without a real value, if carefully made. Many years must elapse before the lines in the spectra of the Southern stars can be accurately measured by methods like those employed by Dr. Huggins. In the mean- time such results as those here given are all that are available. These * Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. XL, Art. X. 166 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. serve to give us a certain amount of information that can be thoroughly relied on; they enable us to state, further, that the existence of certain physical conditions, and the presence of certain elementary substances in certain stars, are highly probable; and, possibly, they are calculated to create or stimulate in us a desire to learn more certainly and fully the constitution and physical habitudes of the stars. The objects are treated of in the order of their Right Ascension, and the places of the stars, when given, are taken from the ‘‘ First Melbourne Catalogue," epoch, 1870. The first star on the list is Achernar, or a Eridani. This fine first magnitude star is very nearly pure white, without any discernible tint, except possibly a slight shade of blue. This star belongs to Padre Secchi’s first class of stars, the type of which is the giant sun Sirius. In the case of typical stars of this class, the spectrum is remarkable for the great breadth and distinctness of the hydrogen lines. Indeed these stars are for convenience often called **the hydrogen stars." All of them are white, or bluish-white. In Achernar the hydrogen lines are not nearly so strongly marked as they are in some others of the class. Indeed the star by no means nearly approaches the type, and is probably to be considered as holding a position between such stars as Sirius and stars of the second class, like Procyon, though much nearer to the former than to the latter. a Eridani.—This beautiful little double-star is just visible with the naked eye in fine weather. It is about one degree from Achernar, north follow- ing. The two components are of the same orange colour, and of very nearly equal magnitudes, 7 and 7. When Sir John Herschel measured this star (anno 1835-0), he found the angle of position with the meridian to be 122-8?. Powell, in 1868, found the angle to be 73:9?. Last week (say, anno 1879°75) the angle was 58°8°. The distances for the same dates are 8°65", 4:88", and 5-3’. This interesting double is, therefore, very probably a binary star of comparatively short period. 0 Eridani.—R. A. 2hrs. 58min. 19:9 secs. Decl. 40° 49'—85'17" S. In the Melbourne Catalogue, the magnitudes 5:2 and 6:2 are assigned to the com- ponents of this fine double star. "There is most certainly serious error here. The star is plainly, taken as a whole, a large fourth, or a small third-mag- nitude star. Probably magnitude 8:9 for the larger star, and 5:9 for the smaller one, would not be far from the truth. The colour of the larger star is yellowish-white, with a faint green tinge; the smaller is a light shade of indigo blue. Sir John Herschel's angle of position and distance, in the year 1835-75, were 81:5? and 8:68". The angle at the epoch 1879-75 is 85-49. I have not been able to get a thoroughly satisfactory distance, but it is now somewhat over 10’. Time and accumulated observations will, Porz.—On the Southern Stars and other Celestial Objects. 167 of course, show either that the change in the angle and the distance of the two stars of this double is owing to the proper motion of one, or both, of the components, or that 0 Eridani is a binary system. The latter alterna- tive appears to me to be by far the more probable. 232 Reticuli of the Melbourne Catalogue is a fine star of a magnificent scarlet colour. It is of magnitude 6}. There is a distant companion white star of the eleventh magnitude. The R. A. of 232 Reticuli, is 4hrs. 85min. 15:15secs., and the declination 62° 20’ 0-69" S. The spectrum of this star is very remarkable. It belongs to Secchi’s fourth class. The typical star of this division is small—invisible, in fact, to the naked eye; it is variable both in light and colour; itis a very distinct red, ruby, crimson, or scarlet; and its spectrum consists of bands of light, some- times containing faint bright lines with dark spaces between the bright brands. 282 Reticuli, though so small, gives a fine spectrum when the spectroscope is used with the reflector, because the light is not spread out over the whole length of the spectrum, but is concentrated in certain parts of it. Thus the red part of the spectrum is very bright, but the place of the orange is occupied by a very thick black “ bar." The yellow, again, is pretty bright, and so is part of the green, but towards the violet end of the spec- trum the light is very faint, and the colours are quite cut out for large spaces by intervals of almost complete darkness. I failed to notice here what is said to be characteristic of this class of stars—a gradually diminishing blackness of the bars in the direction of the violet end of the spectrum ; nor could I distinguish any bright lines in any part of the spectrum. The study and observation of stars of this class is none the less interesting to us, because in the present state of our knowledge their spectra are unintelligible, for it is generally felt by those who have been in the habit of observing them, that there is a great secret of nature waiting to be discovered in con- nection with them. Their being for the most part so very variable both in light and colour, the strongly-pronounced red colour of all of them, and their strange and beautiful spectra, all point to the conclusion, that the man who succeeds in “reading the riddle” of the nature and constitution of the red variable stars, will have made a very important contribution to our knowledge of the process by which suns and systems are evolved out of the primordial nebula, or whatever the substance may be, from which such systems are formed, and to which, perchance, when their mission is fulfilled, they again return. In the meantime these red stars seem to set anything, even like rational conjecture, at defiance. a Argus (Canopus.)— This great star, the only rival of Sirius, is a hydrogen, or first-class star. In its spectrum, the F. and C. hydrogen lines, and that near G., are broad and distinct, though less so than in the spectrum 168 Transactions.—M iscellaneous. of Sirius. ‘There ave a great many very fine lines in the spectrum of Canopus, but these are not generally visible. It is only when the atmos- phere is very steady and clear that they can be plainly seen. A fine line, however, or rather a small group of lines, in all probability that called 6, and due to the presence of magnesium in the photosphere of the star, can generally be made out in moderately fine weather. x Argus.—This is a wide telescopic double-star, forming, with a very distant companion of about the fifth magnitude, another double, easily visible as such with the naked eye. The colour of the large third-magni- tude star is a strongly-marked orange; the other two are indigo-blue. It is a well-known fact, that a large yellow or orange-coloured star has frequently a distant companion of a blue or green colour. It is generally supposed that this is a sort of prima facie evidence that the two stars are in some way physically connected. It seems to me that the existence of these comple- mentary colours in apparently neighbouring stars in no way indicates per se that they are physically connected. I am inclined to think that, given a large bright orange star, with a smaller star naturally very white and nearly in the line of sight, this latter must appear greenish or bluish. The light of the bright orange star fatigues the eye as far as its power of receiving the impressions which we call red, orange, and yellow is concerned. Now, when the eye is directed to the smaller star, the less refrangible portion of the light coming from this fainter object is unable to act with its normal effect, while the green, the blue, and the violet rays, by which the eye has not been fatigued at all, produce their ordinary impression. It is commonly said that this explanation may be true enough in a few cases; but that, if the bright star is hidden behind a thick bar placed across the field of the telescope, and the smaller star still appears blue or green, it is a proof that the light of the smaller star is really blue or green, and that its colour cannot be the effect of mere contrast. This is, I feel sure, fal- lacious. I have often tried the experiment and at first it was very dis- appointing, for one would naturally expect that a star, which appeared coloured in the presence of a very bright companion, would show its colour still more distinctly when that companion was hidden from view. But this never happened, the more completely the light of the larger star was removed, the less was colour in the companion observable. I feel per- suaded that, if the light of the larger star could be entirely cut off, which by-the-by is impossible, the blue colour would entirely disappear. It is worth noting, too, that the longer one looks at a blue star, its com- panion being hidden, the more completely does the blue colour disap- pear; that is, I take it, as the eye recovers its normal condition, after being exposed to a severe strain from the light of the large star, so does Popre.—On the Southern Stars and other Celestial Objects. 169 its sensitiveness to the feeble red, orange, and yellow rays of the small star return, and it sees the small star to be white or nearly so. On the other hand, I have often noticed that the longer one looks at a double star of this kind, both stars being in the field, the more pronounced does the blue become. There is only one instance, that I am aware of, in which this theory will not hold good. The small companion of a Scorpii is un- doubtedly really greenish. I saw it on the 28rd of March, 1878, emerge from behind the moon after an occultation while its bright companion was still hidden, its colour then was a pale pea-green. There could have been no contrast here, except with the moon’s light; admitting this exception, however, it seems to me highly probable that while, in such wide double stars as m Argus and y Crucis the orange or yellow star is really what it seems, the star that appears green or blue is, as a rule, really white. If this view is the correct one, it follows that those observers who spend a great deal of time in observing the tints of the companions to large stars, are, to a great extent, wasting their time. y Argus.—This fine second-magnitude multiple- star has a very curious tol le It belongs to a very small class of stars, the only other one that I have heard of is in the Northern constellation Cassiopeia. In the spectrum of y Argus there are certainly three very bright lines, one rather faint, and, I believe, many finer ones. I am almost certain, too, that there are several fine dark lines in the spectrum. The brightest line is, not improbably, the F. hydrogen line; and the somewhat fainter one, the C. hydrogen line. Of the other two very distinct bright lines, one is certainly not very far from the position of the D. sodium line; but I cannot place the other. The presence of bright lines in the spectrum renders it far more difficult than usual to estimate the positions, but the other line seems to be about one-third of the distance from D. towards the iron line E. Not improbably then, outside the photosphere of y Argus, there are ever-present enormous masses of hydrogen and sodium, as well as other substances in the gaseous condition, which have been ejected from the more central parts o this sun; and, the temperature of these incandescent gases being much higher than that of the solar photosphere below, their spectrum is super- imposed on the ordinary spectrum of the star proper. £ Argus.— his yellow star belongs to Secchi’s second class. In these stars the lines are very fine, and not easily seen unless the weather is very favourable. To this class our sun belongs. In the spectrum of e Argus the F. line can be seen pretty easily, but the D. sodium line seems to be the most distinct of this spectrum. B Argus.—Magnitude, one and a-half. Colour, white. A first-class star. The hydrogen lines are pretty broad and distinct. “ 170 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. The blue Planetary Nebula near the Southern Cross.—This object, No. 8365 in Sir John Herschel’s Catalogue, is in R. A. 11hrs. 44min., and decl. 56° 31'S. The colour of this strange object is a bright unmistakable blue. This nebula, like other planetary nebule that have been examined in the Northern Hemisphere, gives a spectrum of one bright line. Possibly, in a larger instrument, more lines might be seen. It is, of course, impossible with my apparatus to determine the position of this line, as there are no landmarks, so to speak, to guide one to a decision. It is most probable, however, that it is one of the hydrogen or of the nitrogen lines, and that this planetary nebula is a spherical mass of one or both these gases in an incandescent state. a Crucis.—This superb pair of stars, by far the finest in the sky, con- sists of two stars, bluish white in tint, and very nearly equal in size, each being of the second magnitude. There is a distant six-magnitude com- panion, of a sea-green colour, as well as three smaller comites of magni- tudes, 121, 14, and 18 respectively. These latter are well seen in the 8}- inch reflector, but a small telescope of course does not show them. I have made a very great number of measures of the angle of position of this star, and having weighted the observations with reference to the state of the atmosphere, etc., at the time when the measures were taken, I find the angle of position for the year 187877 to be 118:5?. This, by a very singular coincidence, is exactly the same angle as that obtained by Powell in the year 1863. Herschel gives the angle for 1885-38 as 120-6". I may say that, if I had rejected two of my observations, which were made in rather bad weather, and which exceeded the average of the rest by 14° and 34° respectively, the angle obtained, taken in connection with Powell's and Sir John Herschel’s, would have indicated, I believe, a very slow but really regular angular motion, in a retrograde direction, since Herschel's time, and would, with the measures of distance given below, have convinced me, at all events, that a Crucis is a binary star of very long period. The temp- tation in such cases to ‘‘ cook one's accounts” a little, to omit taking into aecount facts or numbers which do not square with one's own views or wishes, is very strong, but the man who cannot resist it had better give up science altogether and take to something else in which it is not of vital importance that he should tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, with regard to his observations. The distance between the two stars at the epoch, 1836:36, was 5°65"; in 1863, Powell made it 4-98"; and at the end of last month, 1879-75, the distance, a mean of several measures, was 4°79". a Crucis is a hydrogen star, but its spectrum is very difficult to observe, except in the finest weather. Even then the only lines that I can make out are the hydrogen lines, and they are by no means very easy to see. Pore.—On the Southern Stars and other Celestial Objects. 171 y Crucis.—It has been customary for astronomers to catalogue this star—the “ Head of the Cross "—as a double star; but the proper motion of the large orange-coloured star is rapidly carrying it away from its five- . and-a-half-magnitude blue companion, The spectrum of y Crucis is perhaps the finest of all stellar spectra. The groups of lines are so numerous and so well marked that this spectrum may be observed under almost any at- mospherie conditions, if the star can be seen at all. y Crucis is a typical star of Secchi’s third class, which are all orange colour verging towards red. In their spectra there are numerous, easily-seen, close groups of lines; but the hydrogen lines are either very indistinct or altogether absent. a Orionis and a Herculis are good specimens of the two principal subdivisions of this class. In the spectrum of y Crucis there are at least eight broad groups of lines, and some of these occupy the parts of the spectrum at which sodium, iron, magnesium, and calcium lines are found in the solar spectrum. But, because they are groups, it is much more diffieult to say whether they contain the lines belonging to those elements or not, than it is in the case of a first or second-class spectrum. Still, I anticipate that careful measure- ments will confirm my opinion that iron and magnesium lines, especially the latter, are present in the spectrum of this star; the sodium line is pro- bably there too. There is, also, a fine line just at the part where the green merges into the blue of the spectrum. This is possibly the F. hydrogen line. There is one very significant feature in this spectrum, so at least it seems tome. It is well known that when the Sun is near the horizon, especially in damp weather, his spectrum contains certain groups of lines which are due to the aqueous vapour in our own atmosphere, and that, as he reaches a greater altitude, these lines become faint or disappear. Now, two at least of the groups in the spectrum of y Crucis appear to occupy the same position as two of the principal groups of atmospheric lines. Now this being verified, important conclusions might follow. Secchi, on grounds of this sort, infers the existence of aqueous vapours in the neighbourhood of sun-spots. The spectroscope knows nothing, so to speak, about distance, except indeed where motion of approach or recession is concerned. If these aqueous vapour-lines are produced in spots on the sun, may they not be produced in much the same way in y Crucis, the principal difference being that on the distant star the cause is more general and the effect greater than it is onourown Sun. If I am not mistaken, the existence of these s lines should enable us to read a certain portion of the ‘‘life history” of a star This history might be something like this: Let us suppose that, count- less ages ago, y Crucis was a white star, like Sirius, It was then far more 172 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. intensely heated than it is now. All the elements of which it is composed were there uncombined. Hydrogen, the gas of the smallest density, ordinarily extended furthest from the centre of the globe, and this hydrogen, its outer envelope, was nearly always near the confines of the normally cold regions of space. Thus it would have a somewhat lower temperature than the rest of the sphere, and hence well-marked hydrogen lines would appear in its spectrum at this period. Comparatively small quantities of other elements, however, would frequently be erupted from the interior portions of the sphere, and would reach what may be called the surface. The presence of these would cause the appearance of numerous fine lines in the . spectrum. As eternity went on, if I may use the expression, the star radiated a large portion of its heat into space, the elements began to combine chemically to a certain extent, large volumes of hydrogen ceased to exist as such, through combining with oxygen and forming water-vapour, of which the outer star envelope would now consist. In place of the hydrogen lines of the white star therefore, we now find the aqueous vapour spectrum—* the atmospheric lines" as they are called. The result of the combination of the oxygen and the hydrogen would, of course, be a great decrease in the volume of the outer envelope. This would probably bring the lines of sodium, magnesium, iron, and calcium into greater prominence, and we should have the spectrum which y Crucis now presents. Between the two conditions described there would be an intermediate one. Through such a stage our Sun may possibly be passing now. It may be, in short, that our Sun was once a Sirius, is now a Procyon, and will by-and-by be a y Crucis. This is a mere hypothesis, of course, though it appears to account pretty fairly for some of the phenomena of the stars. In fact, I give it merely as a suggestion, feeling that it is as little entitled to carry weight with it as an hypothesis, founded on observed phenomena and not at vari- ance with known facts, can be. y Centauri.—R. A. 12hrs. 94min. 21:46secs. Decl. 58° 14' 48-94". — This is a very fine close pair of stars, each component being of the fourth magni- tude, and purely white. In his “ Results of Observations at the Cape of Good Hope," Sir John Herschel gives the position-angle as 854-8°,. the epoch being 1835-89, while the distance is stated to be 3". To this estimate of distance Herschel attaches no value. For the year 1878-98 the angle of position is 6:6?, or 186:6?, and the distance 2-9". B Crucis.—' This fine white star has a distinct deep blood-red companion, the position angle being 2604? and the distance (1879)-208'. It seems to me that the small star varies in size from about the eleventh to nearly the eighth magnitude. It would be well if the small star could be watched, so that its period and the amount of its variation in brightness might be accurately ascertained, m Porz.—On the Southern Stars and other Celestial Objects. 173 a Centauri.—R. A. 14hrs. 80min. 47:07sees. Decl. 60° 17’ 53°93". Magnitudes, 1-2. The following table will give the position-angles, and the distances of the components of this star, for selected epochs during the forty-five years which have elapsed since 1834, when it was first accurately measured by the greatest of all astronomers, Sir J. Herschel :— OBSERVER. Date. Posrrron. DISTANCE. Sir J. Herschel = vs e 1834-7 — 17:43” Sir J. Herschel 3 si Ex 1834:8 218? 30' — Sir J. Herschel e i» Ex 1835-7 219° 80' — Sir J. Herschel & e 4 1837-3 220° 42’ — ir J. Hersch us vx 1837:4 — 16°12” Powell (from Webb) . eg us 1864 5° T 7°85" in F. M. G.C 1870-0 17° 19’ 10:73" My recent measures .. e ES 1878:7 156? 19' — My recent measures .. Pee s 1879-75 183? 8' 4-55" With this table as a basis, it wil be found that the major axis of the apparent orbit lies nearly in the direction 261? to 2063?, and that the greatest elongation north is about 11”, while the greatest elongation south is 27". Mr. Powell makes the period between 76 and 77 years. If the places of the two stars given by Lacaille (1750) were correct, however, the period would be just about 85 years, for the angle of position computed from his places of the stars is 218? 44', which a reference to the above table will show, was very nearly Sir John Herschel's micrometrically-determined position 84-79 years afterward. As, however, the distance obtained by Sir John Herschel disagrees very materially with that deduced from Lacaille's places of the stars, but little weight is attached to the observation of 1750. This magnificent double star is the finest object of the kind in the heavens. Besides being a binary star of very short period, every one knows that a Centauri is our next neighbour among the stars, and that it was the first to give up the secret of its parallax under direct Transit Circle observations. The colour of this star is straw-yellow, or sometimes golden- yellow, according to the state of the atmosphere. When there is haze, of course the smaller star is somewhat more affected by it than the larger. This tends to give it a slight brownish tint when the sky is not clear. a Centauri is a star of the second class. Its spectrum is very like that of the sun. Even the principal dark lines are fine, and they apparently occupy the same rela- tive positions as do the well-known lettered lines in the so The resemblance between the two spectra is so striking that any one see- ing the two spectra for the first time could hardly fail to notice the similarity. More dispersive power, however, and the means of accurately determining the position of the lines of a Centauri might show that they are not the 174 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. same as the solar lines. Such a result would surprise me much. The D. sodium line, the E. iron line, the b magnesium line, and the F. hydrogen line of the Sun have, almost certainly, their counterparts in the spectrum of a Centauri. "There can be little doubt that the physieal constitution of this great star is, in most respects, the same as that of the Sun. It is probable, however, that a Centauri is less developed than the Sun ; for, as Mr. Proctor has pointed out, its light is brighter than its mass would lead us to expect itto be, judging from the light of our Sun, as compared with his mass. While the mass of the star is to the mass of the Sun as 2: 1, the light of the star is to the light of the Sun as 8:1. Now, if it is true, as physicists have good grounds for believing, that the Sun is, and has been, very slowly but surely losing his heat, just as our earth has most certainly lost an enormous amount of hers, there must have been a time when the Sun and his system were less developed, but far hotter and brighter than they are now—when they formed, probably, as I said when speaking of y Crucis, & white star—that is to say, there was, quite possibly, a time when the light from our Sun bore the same relation to his mass as the light from a Centauri bears to its mass. We may also believe that matters are less advanced in the planets (if there are any) of this neighbouring system than they are with us. a Trianguli.—The spectrum of this star is not very striking, but it is rather curious, as showing, apparently, that the star is in a condition inter- mediate between that of a Centauri and that of y Crucis. The lines of the second class, and also the groups, are very faint, but they arethere. Tt will be seen that this fact has some bearing on the suggestion I made respecting the gradual development of stars while speaking of y Crucis. Here it looks asif we had, so to speak, caught a star in the act of changing from the second to the third class. What I have seen of the spectra of the stars, so far, leads me to think it probable that if every star, down to the sixth mag- nitude, could be examined even with my instrument, and mapped roughly, i& would be found that the spectra obtained could be so classified that a series might be made, each member of which would differ from the next almost insensibly. This, of course, would take a long time to do, as small stars can be examined only in very fine weather. When it was done, how- ever, the results would be very valuable and interesting. a Gruis.—This is a second-magnitude white star, with the usual spec- trum crossed by distinct hydrogen lines. B Gruis is a second-magnitude star, and nearly as bright as the lucida of this constellation. Its colour is reddish-orange, and its spectrum is much like that of y Crucis, but the groups of lines are not so distinct, and, generally, there is a sort of approach to the appearance presented by Bicxerton.—On the Origin of the Visible Universe. 175 the spectrum of Mira Ceti, which I find thus described in my note-book, under the date October 8th, 1878 :—“ Saw to-night the spectrum of Mira: it is really wonderful—something like that of a Herculis, as given by Chambers. It seems to consist of bright broad bands, with narrow ones in between. These bands are dark, but hardly black. The effect produced is, as it were, that of an irregular set of columns. The brighest part of the spectrum is at the yellow and the green.” a Piscis Australis (Fomalhaut).—This star is visible at home sometimes, but its altitude there is so small that it can scarcely be properly observed with the spectroscope. Fomalhaut is a first-class star of the most pro- nounced type; it is very remarkable for the great breadth of the F. hydro- gen line. In Fomalhaut it is far broader than it is even in Sirius. As an increase in the breadth of the hydrogen lines has been shown to be due to increased pressure, and as the increase in breadth is also proportional to the pressure brought to bear upon the gas which gives the lines in the spectrum, we may, I would venture to suggest, conclude that the pressure at the surface of this star is extremely great. That is to say, Fomalhaut is either extremely dense and compact, so that its radius is very small com- pared with its mass (which is not very likely), or it is one of the very largest stars in the sky. In conclusion, I would ask you to overlook any faults of style that may be observable in this paper. It claims to be nothing more than its title announces it to be—** Notes on Southern Stars.” Art. XIII.— Partial Impact (Paper No. 3): On the Origin of the Visible Universe. By Prof. A. W. Bickerton, F.C.8., President of the Philo- sophical Institute of Canterbury. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 13th Feb., 1879.] In the paper I am now submitting to the Institute, I shall attempt to show that almost the whole of the visible universe may have been formed by two stupendous bodies travelling independently in free space, being brought together by their mutual attraction, and coming into partial collision. I shall in the first part explain the kind of system the naked eye and telescope show the universe to be. Secondly, I shall attempt to show that a system resembling it most strikingly in its more salient features, corresponds to one of the possible stages which would result from the partial collision of two cosmical bodies. The belt of luminous cloud which is seen as a bow spanning the heavens from horizon to horizon, is familiar to everyone ; and to a large number 176 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. here it is also familiar as an object which may be seen at the antipodes, thus showing that it extends as a ring around the entire globe, following almost exactly a great circle of the heavens. This is the so-called milky way, which all astronomers tell us consists of tens of millions of separate stars, many of them probably equal to, and some of them larger than, our sun. Itis only necessary to look in the same direction on any clear summer night, as twilight is giving place to darkness, before the small stars are visible, to see that almost all the stars then visible lie in a long broad belt from Alpha Centauri to Orion. This is so striking that if you ask anyone what is the distribution of the stars, this feature cannot fail to be observed as a stream of stars. Wait a little longer and observe the milky way: one end of the stream of stars will be found to lie on it, but makes a very small angle with it. Agam the winter aspect of the milky way suggests exactly the same idea, with this striking addition, that parts appear to start away from the main ring in a series of streams frequently corresponding with sprays of stars. Again, Proctor says, ‘‘ that the stars of the first six orders are gathered into two definite regions, a northern and southern, so markedly, that the distribution of stars within these regions is richer than the distribu- tion over the rest of the heavens in the proportion of five to two.” Thus the mere naked-eye appearance of the heavens points to its being a definite system, and the older philosophic writers have often called attention to this fact. . Wright, Kant, Huygens, and many others expressed themselves strongly on the order of the heavens, and appear to have had no doubt of its being either one or more systems, and several have classified these systems into various orders, of which the visible universe does not appear necessarily to form the highest order. Kant says, speaking of the systems really known, ** we trace here the first terms of a series of worlds and systems, and these first terms of an infinite series enable us to infer the nature of the rest of the series.” But if the naked-eye view gives it the appearance of a definite system, it will be seen that telescopic observations demonstrate the fact. Sir J. Herschel, who studied star-distribution more that any other man, says that the mass of stars is generally flat, of small thickness. He also says, that the number of stars visible in his telescope in the-milky way number about eighteen millions, and about two millions in the remainder of the celestial vault. Struve published a list of stars in which he showed that in equal areas there were 4} at the poles of the galaxy to 122 in the galaxy itself. Herschel also says in another place—That beyond a certain magnitude all the stars lie in the milky way. There is another feature of the heavens which the telescope reveals to us, namely, the nebule at the poles of the galaxy, and the star-clusters in the galaxy itself. Mr. Cleve- land Abbe, from Herschel’s catalogues, says:—‘‘ Imagine a belt thirty BickERTON.—On the Origin of the Visible Universe. 177 degrees wide, extending around the heavens, including the milky way. * * * This belt will include one-fourth the surface of the celestial sphere, * * * Here we find nine-tenths of the star-clusters, and one-tenth of the nebulw.” In another paper I shall attempt to show that most likely these few nebule are not of the same order as the polar nebule. Proctor, who discussed these facts very fully, after showing that star- clusters. essentially belong to the galaxy, and, as we pass from that great circle, we go through regular stages of lessening solvability to the galactic poles, and there the nebule are completely irresolvable, says:—''I believe that cause may be assumed not unreasonably to be the difference in the circumstances under which the galactic and extra- galactic nebule have reached their present state." Again, in respect to the nebule at the poles of the milky way, Proctor shows that every theory of their existence is ridiculous, ‘‘ unless we concede that the nebule belong for the most part to our galactic system.” The accompanying charts and sketches by Sidney Waters, Proctor, and Newcombe, show strikingly this most remarkable arrangement. Thus, so far, we see that the milky way is a region of stars and star-clusters, and that the poles of this ring are regions of nebule. I shall now show that our sun occupies roughly the centre of this system, in a region poor in stars. Proctor says, after a very long discussion of the question, **all these phenomena point to the conclusion that the milky way, in this neighbourhood at any rate, is really what it appears to be—a belt or zone of stars, separated from us by a comparatively starless interval." After discussing various hypotheses, he says :—''In either case we must assume that our sun is not very far from the centre of the system." The picture of the universe we obtain from these extracts is a clear and distinct one. But perhaps the most striking argu- ment that has yet been offered for the common origin of the universe is that of the spectroscope; which shows identity in the composition of the sun and stars with the elements to be found in the earth. The analyses of meteorites, in which no extra terrestrial element has ever been found, clearly point to the same conclusion. . I wil give the opinions of a few astronomers on the evidence I have offered. Sir William Herschel distinctly states, that any sound theory of the universe must account for the peculiar arrangement of the nebule. Proctor, in speaking on grounds of probability, says :—'* Where the results are in direct contact, the rich regions for one order corresponding to the poor regions for the others, and vice versá, the two orders of objects belong to one system," and again says that he knows of no single reason for sup- posing these nebule to be external galaxies. That nebule are not external galaxies is proved from the facts recorded by Schmidt, Hind, and others, 178 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. that nebule have been observed to vary and disappear, which is clearly impossible with a galaxy like our milky way. I will only give one other extract from among a large number. It is from the same work (‘ Proctor on the Universe”), which is wholly devoted to demonstrate these conclusions. ** The phenomena I have been discussing seem to point to conclusions very different from those which have been usually accepted respecting the visible universe. Instead of separating the stars and nebule into distinct systems, or rather of looking on the stellar system as a member of the system of nebule, we seem compelled to look on almost every object visible even in the most powerful telescope, as a portion of one system, which comprises within its range, simple, multiple, and clustering stars, irresolvable nebulæ, gaseous bodies of symmetrical and unsymmetrical figure, and in all pro- bability myriads of other forms of matter as yet undetected.” These are the more general conclusions as to the constitution of the heavens. There is a great deal of special evidence pointing the same way ; but I can only mention it here. I refer to the fact that nearly all the tempo- rary and variable stars are in the milky way, the community of motion of groups of stars, the tendency to stream formation, and the special character of the milky way nebule. But what I have already discussed is sufficient to show distinctly that our universe is one system of definite construction. It undoubtedly consists of a ring or spiral of stars, star-dust and star-clusters. About the centre of this ring our sun is situated, in a comparatively sparsely-spread region. If we suppose a line to pass through our system, at right-angles to the plane of the galaxy, it passes in each direction through a region of thousands of nebule—these nebular masses being, as it were, polar caps covering approximately one-sixth the celestial sphere. It is certain that such an arrangement is absolutely incompatible with a chance distribution, and that consequently it offers a perfectly legitimate ground for scientific induction. In offering this hypothesis I do so with the more confidence as it is probable that every wide generalization tends to give direction to much successful research, the results of which are of great value, although some of these may convert the hypothesis into mere scaffolding, to be removed when the structure is complete. I shall asswme the existence of large bodies without discussion, as such discussion is antecedent to the especial purpose of this paper, and besides, would unduly increase its length, which is too great already. I propose to discuss their claim on your consideration in a future paper. I will, however, call your attention to the present views of mathematical physicists, which point to the final state of the universe being one gigantic body, with all the energy dissipated as uniformly diffused heat. If, therefore, we may look forward to such a body in the future, why not in the past? I will not, however, Bicxerton.—On the Origin of the Visible Universe. 179 go quite so far as to suppose the body cold. I shall assume two stupendous bodies, having small independent proper motion in space, being probably at exceedingly high temperatures, endowed with a considerable rotation, and having a large number of bodies revolving around them, and not unlikely making up a considerable proportion of their mass. The probable existence of such bodies is rendered likely on the view of the cosmogony which follows as a logical deduction from thé conception of partial impact. I will now place before you some of the broader conclusions which are general deductions to all cases of partial impact :— 1st. The original independent motion of the bodies acts in three ways— (a) it tends to render the impact more partial; (b) in those parts coming into impact, it increases the temperature; and (c) it tends to increase resultant velocity, and hence the escape of the several pieces. 2nd. At impact, all parts coming into actual collision will have a part of their molar motion converted into heat, and the more completely the parts coming into impact destroy each other’s momentum, the higher the temperature of those parts. On the other hand, as those parts will possess no molar motion they will tend at first to occupy the centre of the mass. 8rd. In partial impact the whole motion (except that due to original rotation and to pressure) wil tend to lie in the plane containing the line joining the centres of gravity, and containing the direction of motion of the two bodies at impact. This plane is doubtless the great circle bisecting the milky way, and might be considered the ecliptic of sidereal astronomy. 4th. A tendency to rotation must be produced which at first will be generally in one direction. This may pass through an apparent irregularity, but finally, on the condensation of the mass, some would exist. 5th. After some time has elapsed, the whole of the motion being originally nearly radial, and chiefly occupying one plane, will tend to develope an irregular ring consisting of several roughly spiral masses. 6th. All original rotation, both of bodies in orbits and of the large masses themselves, will tend to destroy the symmetry of the ring, and to take the matter from its plane. 7th. Generally, considerable irregularities in matter not uniformly spread will tend to inerease themselves. Thus, if a hole appears in an infinite flat dise, attraction will tend to make it greater; and again, a break in a ring will tend to increase in width, the ring itself tending, of course, to diminish its mean diameter. 8th. The chief of the molecular motion (heat) will act radially in all directions, and consequently will ehange the dise (which resultant motion of mass tends to develope) into a lentieular mass. 9th. The varying velocity of different chemical substances at the same temperature, when acted on by gravity, will tend to separate this lens into 180 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. a nucleus and an escaping envelope; in some cases, the envelope alone will exist. 10th. This envelope tends to separate into three parts; the edge, which follows the general ring of matter, and two saucer-shaped masses at the extremity of the axis. 11th. Impacts of large bodies are not mere pictures of small impacts, as all such energies as cohesion, latent heat of fusion and volatilization, dissociation, etc., are constants, which form but a small portion of the total energy in large impacts, and are large ratios in small impacts. 12th. In all partial impacts there is a tendency to cause the escape of fragments beyond the range of effective attraction. Doubtless in all impacts some of the lighter elements may have molecular velocity sufficient to escape. 18th. Also, in all partial impacts the coalesced mass is formed of parts of both bodies. 14th. Partial impact, consequently, leads to a community of chemical material throughout the entire universe. I have now given a picture of the universe, drawn from absolutely independent observations, and also, I believe, a set of logical deductions from “ partial impact," and it will be in the knowledge of many here that these deductions were worked out before I had studied the construction of the heavens, as exhibited by modern research. We will now compare the result of astronomical observation with the theory of partial impact. 1. Theory says, all matter of the universe should be common, that is, composed of the same chemical elements; observation shows this to be the case. 2. Theory says, the chief of the matter should lie in one plane; astronomers say it does. 8. Theory shows that at one stage, resulting from partial impact, the matter should be roughly in the form of a ring; naked eye observation shows it to be so. 4. Deductions on principles of energy show that the axis of this ring should be the hottest; the sheets of nebula at the poles point clearly to this oe been the case. . The heat being as at the centre, the centrifugal force should be as Proctor says, in his essay on the universe, speaking of the origin of the polar nebulæ, that they may have been formed ‘through the influence of the same principle which makes the centrifugal force near the poles of a rotating globe less than that at the globe's equator ”—a really surprising remark, considering Proctor had no inducement other than actual observa- tion to make it. Bicxerton.—On the General Problem of Stellar Collision. 181 6. The most casual study of “ partial impact” shows that for a long time after impact, at least, streams and sprays of fragments must exist, and also that there should be considerable community of motion. Proctor has demonstrated this to be the case. 7. Original rotation of mass would tend to take material slightly out of the ecliptic as streams. Original orbital rotation of smaller bodies would tend still more to take these bodies out of the general plane, but more irregularly. This appears to explain much of the definite irregularity of the visible universe. Besides these general agreements, all the minor observations I have mentioned seem to point quite to the same conclusion. How like a con- tinuance of the original motion does the clustering of the stars at opposite points in the ring appear. The varied motion in the plane of the ring must produce many collisions, resulting in temporary and variable stars, and nearly every one of these is in this plane. Nebule of definite structure, such as planetary and annular, probably originate in the same way, at least partial collision offers a perfectly intelligible account of them, and I know of no other that does. These are also in the same small area in the heavens. Speculation concerning the origin of the hollows in the milky way, also in the milky-way nebule, and relating to these bodies themselves, as well as the Magellanic clouds, so also discussions relating to the available energy, the cause of the extinction of light and of the stability of the cosmogony, although belonging to this subject, must be left to future papers. I cannot conclude the brief account of this wonderful and beautiful galaxy, of which our earth forms so minute a portion, without hoping that it may induce others to enter this fascinating and extensive field of research ; — workers whose time and skill in observing, and whose higher mathemati- eal training may enable them to deal exhaustively with some of the many and original difficult problems which this view of the universe suggests, Art. XIV.— Partial Impact (Paper No. 4): On the General Problem of Stellar Collision. By Prof. A. W. Bickerton, F.C.8., President of the Philoso- phical Institute of Canterbury. Plate VI. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 27th February, 1879.] Tue papers I have presented to the Institute on the possible phenomena connected with the partial collision of cosmical bodies, show that this variety of impact is deserving of very careful study. I shall, therefore, in 182 Transactions.— Miscellaneous, this paper, attempt to demonstrate that, with the known distribution of motions of the stars, collisions are inevitable, and that nearly all these must be partial. Secondly, I shall show that there are a large number of influences which will tend to modify and to give variety to the phenomena of partial impact. But that, nevertheless, there are several well-marked peculiarities associated with all such cases of collision which render them perfectly characteristic. Lastly, I shall refer to some of the variety of cosmical phenomena which these peculiarities may give rise to. For some time an idea was common that the whole of the visible Uni- verse was a stable system, and that all the stars in the heavens, including our own, were rotating around a certain definite place in the heavens. This opinion was shared in by nearly all who took part in the discussion on my first paper. Doubtless there is considerable community of motion in some parts of the heavens, and it is not improbable, looking at Proctor’s stellar motion chart, that, taking the whole galaxy, there may be a ten- dency to motion, more in one direction in the galactic ring than in the opposite; yet it is certain that the stars of the galaxy are far from being a really stable system in which all the motions are exactly recurrent in defi- nite periods. I will give the opinions of a few astronomers on this point. Newcombe says :—‘* We may first assert, with a high degree of proba- bility, that the stars do not forma stable system.” * * * * But the most conclusive proof that the stars do not revolve around definite attracting centres is found in the variety and irregularity of their proper motion.” “ The motion of each individual star is generally 80 entirely dif- ferent from that of its f s as seemingly to preclude all reasonable probability that these bodies are revolving in definite orbits around great centres of attraction." * * * « And thus it (each star) may keep,up a continuous dance, under the influence of ever-varying forces, as long as the Universe shall exist under its present form." Again, Herschel says of Madler's suggestion, that the stars revolve around the Pleiades :— That the situation is in itself utterly improbable, lying as it does no less than 26 degrees out of the plane of the galactic circle, out of which plane it is almost inconceivable that any general circulation can take place." tor unfavourably reviews this hypothesis in several of his works. In one place, after a full discussion, he says:—‘‘ These and other con- siderations have led all the most eminent of our modern astronomers to look upon Madler’s hypothesis as one which in the present state of our knowledge we have no right to look upon with favour." Newcombe says of Madler’s hypothesis :—* But not the slightest weight has ever been given to it by astronomers, who have always seen it to be an entirely baseless speculation.” . Bicxerton.—On the General Problem of Stellar Collision. 183 This evidence seems to be indisputable. The stars appear to be some- thing like the molecules of a heated gas, in motion in all directions, and like these necessarily sometimes coming into impact. But many stars will come within the effective attraction of other stars, and this attraction will be enormously more effectual than mere chance in producing collision. Thus the star Alpha Cygni is almost directly approaching our sun, and it is extremely likely that in one or two hundred thousand years it will be for thousands of years the nearest star, by many times in the heavens, during which time, by their mutual attractions, the Sun and this star will probably be deflected several diameters towards each other out of their respective independent paths. That stars are thus brought within each others’ attraction is borne out by the fact observed by Mr. J. W. Wilson, of Rugby, that the constituents of the double-star Castor are moving in hyperbolic orbits, and it would be well worthy of careful observation to ascertain if any other of the binary stars are thus connected. I will not prolong this discussion, for it appears certain that cosmical collisions must occur. That they do occur on a small scale is evident by the stupendous number of meteorites which strike the earth every year, and Proctor’s idea of the small craters on the Moon’s surface is that they have been formed by meteors falling on its surface during the Moon’s viscous condition; clearly what occurs on a small scale, analogy suggests should also occur on a larger one. Having thus shown that cosmical collisions are necessary events with such a system as the galaxy has been proved to be, I shall attempt to show that, except in the collision of bodies of very different volumes, complete collision is of extreme improbability, or, in bther words, that almost all considerable cosmical impacts will be partial collisions. If we suppose two bodies of very great mass, and of excessively minute volume, collision can only occur when by their motions the two are tending to occupy the same point in space at the same time. In most other cases the bodies will tend to take hyperbolic orbits with a common focus, hence they escape each other. Suppose each to retain the same mass, but the volume of each to be expanded beyond the common focus, collision is of course inevitable, and it is clear that the impact must be partial. Those parts of each which lie in each other’s path will mutually destroy each other’s motion, whilst the remainder of each of the two bodies will pass on in orbits more curved than before, but which may still be hyperbolic ; or, if the original proper motion of the bodies were small, or the part struck off of large mass, the new orbits may be elliptical, and one or both of the parts will return and remain in permanent orbits, as double stars. I may men- tion that I have already demonstrated, I believe, with sufficient clearness, 184 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. that the mere work of shearing the bodies when they come into impact, is such an excessively small fraction of the total energy, in cases of large masses, that it may be absolutely disregarded. As the whole of this reasoning holds good for all cases of the collision of approximately equal large bodies, it becomes evident therefore that these collisions are partial. There is, however, one exception, that where the larger body extends so as to include the smaller body completely in its path. The impact in this case is complete as regards the small body, and tangential on the larger, and although tending to produce rotation possesses none of the definite pro- perties of partial impact. It is clear that collisions may vary from the mere graze of the atmosphere of the two bodies, through the stage of cutting off a considerable ratio, up to the extreme case of complete impact, all of which possibilities tend to vary the result. Again, the two bodies may be intensely hot, or one hot and one cold; either or both may be solid, liquid, or gaseous, or mixtures of these physical conditions. They may have an original rotation of their own, and may have smaller bodies revolving around them. They may have had very different original proper motions, and may be of considerably different mass. Any of these peculiarities tends to alter the result attained at and after impact. Still, on the other hand, there are many broad well-marked generalizations which are sufficiently characteristic to mark out these partial collisions as a clearly defined genus, the phe- nomena resulting from them being easily recognizable to a skilled observer. The accompanying diagrams probably represent with some degree of accuracy the stages of a medium case of partial collision. I have attempted to draw these diagrams from independent reasoning on dynamical principles, and have consulted others ds to the accuracy of the reasoning. I must acknowledge my indebtedness for several valuable hints from Mr. N. K. Cherrill. The first figure (Pl. VI.) shows two bodies coming into impact—it will be seen that the bodies are distorted to an egg shape. The idea of this distortion was first suggested to me by Mr. Beverly, of Dunedin, who has been studying the various mathematical problems of complete cosmical impact for more thanadozen years. It will ultimately be found, when this question is discussed in detail, that this distortion produces some very interesting phenomena. The two following figures show the process of impact, and it is perfectly evident, from the mode of impact, the rare out- side of each body meeting with the denser inside of the other, that the two sides of the coalesced mass have a great deal of unbalanced momentum, acting in different directions, and tending to spin the mass on its centre. It is generic of partial impact that it must produce rotation. It will also be seen that this same residual motion, and the attraction of the retreating masses, tend to draw the mass into a spindle shape. It is also evident, all *. OD “209 LaY 24 Hu £i $us 7 Y Kf 047 Al LAE 2g NI TLLY be) 27048m o; MM IA ETIDCTON 3ILLUSNEZN SNY WE aps bot 3 Bicxerton.—On the General Problem of Stellar Collision. 185 motion of translation being originally in the plane of the paper, that ail motion but heat motion and original rotation will still tend to occupy that plane, and that it is consequently the plane of the rotation of the mass. According to the modern theory of heat, all those parts, whose motion of mass is destroyed, will have an equivalent heat energy given them. Here I approach one of the striking peculiarities of this theory. For the temperature developed will not be in any way dependent on the propor- tion struck off. It will depend upon the molar velocity destroyed, and this, again, chiefly upon the mass of the attracting bodies, and the nearness of their centres of gravity. Thus the merest graze will develope nearly as high a temperature in the coalesced part as though one half of each were struck off. Butin these two cases the gravitating powers of the coalesced mass are altogether different, and hence, in some cases, where a small ratio is struck off, the molecular velocity may carry every particle away into free space, and, in other cases, where the collision is more complete, the great attractive powers of the body may hold the gaseous mass in a definite posi- tion. I need not refer to the fact that the former case is typical of tempo- rary stars, and the latter of nebule of definite form. On reference to fig. 4, it will be seen that the wounded retreating stars are considerably heated in and about the plane of section. On escaping the influence of the other bodies they would recover their sphericity, exhibiting a very highly-heated part on one side. I hope, in a future paper, to bring before the Institute a number of facts and conclusions which, I believe, will actually demonstrate that in these bodies we recognize the variable stars which stud our galaxy. It is powerful evidence in favour of this theory, that many variable stars are in pairs. In figure 5, the arrows show the general tendency of the motion in the several parts of the spindle-shaped mass of heated matter. I need scarcely mention that the mass in this form is a figure of a large number of the characteristic nebule, such as the nebule of Andromeda. In figure 6, the rotation of the centre of the mass has begun to give itself a spiral form, and an almost exact figure of Herschel’s drawing of the nebule of the Lion is produced. The other figures trace the later possible pheno- mena which the various motions may produce. They represent systems of bodies, spiral, annular, and planetary nebule. I again state, that these figures were geometrically drawn on a well-considered estimation of the probable residual motion and attractions left in the mass. When some discussion has elicited all the difficulties which beset the question, I hope to offer you an approximate geometrical demonstration of the problem. I believe, however, that it is only in the impact of rare bodies, such as nebule, that nebule showing a spiral reaching near the centre could be produced 17 186 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. In addition to the rotary motion in the plane of the paper, it will be seen that, from the distribution of the attractions and of the matter, pressure due to developed heat will act at first chiefly in a line passing through the centre of gravity and perpendicular to the plane of the paper, so that doubtless, in the majority of cases, a considerable proportion of gaseous matter will be found at the extremities of this axis. There appears considerable evidence that this is really the case with nearly all the ring nebule. But more careful investigation is needed on this point, as the drawings of different observers show considerable difference in this respect. It is certain that in the visible Universe nebulous matter lies chiefly at the poles of the galaxy. But the heat-motion acts in another way in addition to mere pressure. Heat is caused by the motion of molecules, and this motion tends to give an outward direction to the whole mass of the gas. This motion tells most in the lighter molecules, so that when any particle leaves its fellow, it proceeds directly outwards away from the mass. This action, in many cases, would doubtless convert the whole into a mere spheroidal shell, and it is extremely probable that this is the condition of the planetary nebule. But whenever the ratio, struck off at collision, is large, or there is a large ratio of heavy molecules present, these latter return again and form the star so often seen in the centre of these bodies. It would be worth while for members to consider a variety of the many cases which partial impact offers. A particularly interesting case is offered in which an impact is so considerable that the escaping parts are mere shells, doubtless this would break up, and strew the spiral with stars. And again, as regards the problem of the subsequent state of the ends of the spindle, a careful inspection will show that the forward velocity is very different on their two sides, doubtless tending to cause them sometimes to separate into a number of rotating masses, giving rise to multiple systems, having the peculiarity so charac- teristic of the motion of our Solar System. Thus it appears that rotation, matter chiefly in one plane, and high temperature proportional to mass, are the most striking general properties in partial impact, but that the many modifying causes may sometimes produce spirals or ring systems, in other cases mere gaseous shells, or in other cases densely-crowded systems, or complete dissipation of the whole matter into space. In fact, the field of possibilities appears nearly infinite. I think I have shown that it is almost certain that partial impact is at once the most frequent of definite cosmical phenomena, and at the same time a most powerful constructive agent in producing the many marvels which the monster tubes of the great astronomers have shown to exist in such endless variety in the heavens. Bicxerton.—On the Genesis of Worlds and Systems. 187 Art. XV.—On the Genesis of Worlds and Systems. By Prof. A. W. Bicker- TON, F.C.8., President of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. (Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd April, 1879.) * Arrer much consideration, I have decided to depart from the custom of giving a general view of the advance of science, feeling that the stupendous strides of the last few years are more fitting a course of lectures than a short address. I shall therefore devote the time at my disposal to one branch of science, viz., astronomy, which, from our occupying the southern portion of the globe, is one of the few physical sciences which possess local interest. A new country, with its strange fauna and flora, is the naturalist’s paradise. But the isolation, the want of differentiation in his studies and laboratory work, must ever render it a desert to the experimental physicist. The impossibility of ascertaining fully the progress of any branch of science by the few intellectual rays which reach so far from the focus of intelli- gence, will also tell in preventing much original research. But of course locally characteristic natural phenomena, if any exist, form an exception to this rule. This is the position of stellar astronomy: a circle of the heavens is hidden from the view of the great men of Europe, and, as it happens, a circle singularly rich in phenomena, containing, as it does, that magnificent region of the galaxy about the Southern Cross and the two Magellanic Clouds. -It is true that the harvest of this work was reaped by Herschel with his great reflector at the Cape. But there is still work for the gleaner, and in a large field of research it may be considered that his observations were only seed sown, the harvest of which may be reaped by future observers—I refer to all those phenomena in which the effect of time gives the chief interest. As the study of astronomy has thus an undoubted claim upon our con- sideration, I shall not apologize for offering to you a brief account of a new cosmical hypothesis which has occupied a considerable portion of the Society’s time lately. An hypothesis which appears to offer a possible explanation of many of the more peculiar among celestial phenomena. It certainly suggests many definite fields of astronomical research, the results of which, even if unfavourable to the hypothesis, cannot fail to be of value to science. To the mathematician, also, it offers many novel problems. In fact, if this theory should attract attention so far as to pass into that first stage of success as to be called fallacious in principle, impracticable in detail, and absurd on the face of it; or, better still, should it succeed so well as to pro- mote rational discussion worth answering, or obtain that highest eulogy the world knows how to give—of being discovered not to be new, it is probable * President’s Anniversary Address, ee 188 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. that the problems it offers will be fertile ground for the new calculus of vectors to take root in and expand itself, for both are apparently just fitted for each other. This being a popular gathering, I propose giving a rapid sketch of the progress of astronomy and its present position, especially of the phenomena which this theory purports to link together and bring under the domain of recognized scientific law. This will also enable the extension of our ideas, which the theory suggests, to be better understood. I need not tell you that this sketch must be a very hasty one, as from the opposition which has generally attended progress in astronomy, every step would require much space to discuss it fully. It is certainly not now necessary to demonstrate that the Earth is not the centre of the Universe, although we all know the amount of prejudice and obstruction which had to be overcome to get even this much admitted. But the whole view of the Universe and the utterly insignificant position the Earth occupies in it has been achieved only by very hard steady work, in the face of the most virulent opposition, and probably even now some would not be prepared to concede all the ground claimed by astronomers. Nor need we wonder at this. It is natural for all of us to think more highly of anything which immediately concerns us than it probably deserves. and it is necessarily the peculiarity of ignorance to intensify this failing, The stay-at-home resident of a small town grows up thoroughly convinced that it is the undoubted centre around which the world revolves, and for which the metropolis exists as a place for the supply of the town’s neces- sities, and although the disputes of the terrace and the square render it doubtful as to the exact position of the axis, yet the broad fact of its local existence is never questioned. So, the untravelled mind sees in the sun, moon, and stars, ministering lights, having the sole offiee of rendering this earth a fit habitation for man. But occasionally, amidst the long ages of almost brute-like stupidity, periods of enlightenment have occurred, when men have thrown away this garment of egotism—have looked beyond mere self, and tried earnestly to gauge man’s place in nature. Thus we find Democritus teaching that the milky way was a belt of stars. Aristarchus showing the Greeks that the Sun is the centre of the system, and the Earth and planets revolve round it. Eratosthenes measuring the size of the globe and placing meridians and parallels on its surface. Then again, for many ages the cobbler stuck to his last, the practical man to his wooden plough, and the scholar to his traditions. No speculative theorist disturbed the calm, and gradually the world again became flat, and men’s ideas stale and unprofitable. But, after many centuries of this hybernation, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, led on by Copernicus, with the insane folly of Brioxerton.—On the Genesis of Worlds and Systems. 189 visionaries, neglected their business, and again went star-gazing. Many others followed the pernicious example of these unpractical dreamers, until the long succession of such lunatics, and the wonderful method of their madness, impelled even the most stolid to look for themselves, and then the astonishing discovery was made that men were not entirely composed of pocket and stomach. In fact, that unless development were to proceed backwards, and the tail again manifest itself, intellectual food was perhaps as essential as corporeal. In this way, after many efforts, the human mind has escaped its leading strings, has travelled, and seen on what a vast scale the Universe has been constructed; has gauged the Sun and seen him to be a million times larger than the Earth, and the millions of stars, suns like himself; has seen the earth sink into a small particle of cosmical dust of insignificant dimensions, compared to even the visible universe. But do we think less highly of the earth for these extensions of our ideas? Certainly not. Like the travelled man returning to his boyhood’s home, it is true the church spire may have lost its relative grandeur and altitude, and he no longer looks in his back garden for the earth’s axis, yet he loves the place none the less, and finds the brook as clear and the wild flowers as fragrant as when he left; with all kinds of poetic essences diffused around everything, which it never would have had without the wider knowledge he has brought back with him. So, whilst the Universe has been made to reveal its myriads of blazing suns and systems of suns, the Earth has unfolded to our eyes an endless diversity of treasures, and thus at once an infinity of massive grandeur and an infinity of detailed beauty have been simultaneously discovered. But astronomers tell us that among the myriads of ordinary stars or rather suns which form the milky way, there are many erratic members and many bodies altogether unlike the general order. Some ten thousand stars are such close pairs that they appear to form twin suns, sometimes each of the twins have still smaller suns revolving round the larger one. In some places the stars appear so thickly spread that to the naked eye they are mere specks of mist, but the telescope says they are clusters of suns. Over a hundred stars appear to be altogether abnormal in their properties, shining with varying intensity at different times, and at some of their bright periods shining much more intensely than at other times. Quite like a modern belle going through regular short cycles of brilliancy, as each day rolls on, and, like her also, having, as it were, London and country seasons, for, after going through long periods of brilliant dress and undress, it gradually sinks into humdrum country life, searcely even n dressing for dinner. In fact the vagaries of variable stars are so ex that they appear without any law or order; but, as Mrs. Grundy rigidly regu- 190 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. lates the apparently giddy proceedings of society’s neophyte, so it appears possible on this new hypothesis to show that all this apparent stellar disorder conforms to laws as completely as the most carefully watched young lady. Besides these variables which have been long out, it occasionally happens that a star blazes forth before the astonished gaze of beholders, and for a time monopolizes all attention. But after a little while, sometimes only a few weeks, sometimes a year or so, this meteor-like sun gradually loses its brilliancy, and passes away altogether, or becomes a very insignificant little star; the temporary star having no longer any existence except in history. The celestial temporaries have one advantage over our earthly stars, they are sufficiently rare that it is seldom any one is eut out by the appearance of a rival. Two of these stars have however appeared within the last twelve years. But there appear several reasons to suppose that there is quite another class of stars, modest retiring suns, of altogether an unobtrusive character. Suns which have put up their shutters, and retired from business, Suns with very little vitality, or perhaps altogether dead suns. . In addition to all these varieties of stars there is a very wonderful class of bodies called nebule. These are delicate luminous clouds, probably con- sisting of masses of glowing gas. Some of them are of very definite structure, spherical, spindle-shaped, spiral, comet-like, and frequently strewn all over with brilliant stars. Some of them are so large that the size of our whole Solar System would be hardly a sufficient unit to measure them with. Most of these nebule are spread out in two sheets covering a large part of the celestial sphere at the poles of the galactic circle. . As in the human family so with the stellar inhabitant of space, many are associated into well-marked groups; as we have families, tribes, nations, and the whole race, so we have our solar family, our multiple star-system, and probably, by the recent researches of Proctor, the whole visible heavens is a definite and connected system, consisting chiefly of a vast ring of stars, with nebular caps at both its poles. All of these bodies appear to be moving indiscriminately about, without common direction or purpose, although certain pairs and groups seem to have considerable community of motion. But they move fast in those celestial regions, they quite out-do our Canterbury snail ways, a thousand times as fast as our fastest railway train is only a walking star, and I feel afraid to tell you how fast some can run, And every star is pulling hard at allits near neighbours, The nearest star to our sun must have a velocity of sixty miles an hour to escape the sun’s attraction. But amidst all this flying about, this indescribable hurry, these powerful attractions, surely you will say there must occasionally be collisions. The Bicxerton.—On the Genesis of Worlds and Systems. 191 hypothesis I am about to describe suggests that this is the case, but espe- cially says further, that if they do knock against each other the blow may be a mere graze of the two outsides, or sometimes a large piece of each may be struck off, and in extremely rare cases they may meet fair; but as this latter is so extremely rare, the other cases are those chiefly considered, and so the theory is called Partial Impact. I shall now try and show you what a perfect Aladdin’s lamp of possibilities this theory possesses. A gentleman who was present at a bombardment told me that he had seen the cannon balls strike pieces off the cannon and travel on in space. But the energy of each particle of a star at collision is hundreds of thou- sands of times greater than in a cannon ball, so the stars also will strike a piece off each where they strike one another, the remainder passing on in space. The proportional resistance to motion produced by impact in the escaping parts, would be thousands of times less than if a cannon ball of butter just grazed the top of an iron wall; in fact, the large pieces not coming into collision will be certain to travel on. So the effect of the col- lision of our two stars will be to strike a piece off each other where they touch each other, and each star will travel on, with a slice cut off its side. The parts of each which met will be left behind by both the retreat- ing bodies, and will probably remain where the collision occurred. But, owing to the way it has been struck off, the two sides being impelled in opposite directions, it cannot help revolving, and it is not unlikely that nearly all the thousands of rotating bodies and systems in the Universe may have thus been set spinning by partial impact. At least, although we do not know what other agencies may ultimately be found to be capable of producing rotation, at present indirect impact seems to be the only one own. Everyone, now-a-days, knows that heat is a kind of motion, and that ordinary motion destroyed, produces heat. An axle, screw, or gimblet— without grease—gets hot if quickly used. A rifle bullet makes a flash ol light on striking the target, and often melts. A particle of matter plunges into our atmosphere and becomes so hot that it forms a shooting star. A school-boy takes his caning, and speaks of it as a warming. We rub the little cold hands of the wee ones who have been playing with the snow, and we stamp our feet when the thermometer sinks below zero. So if stars come into collision they will develope heat in the part struck off as striking a flint and steel strikes off a spark. In fact, our two stars may be con- sidered as flint and steel meeting one another, striking off a spark, and passing on in space. Any student of heat will tell you that if the motion of a piece of iron be destroyed, he can calculate the temperature produced, if he knows its speed, and that the heat does not depend on the size of the 192 Transactións.— Miscellaneous. iron, only on its velocity. So when our dead suns come into impact, the temperature will not depend on the size of the spark cut off, only on the velocity destroyed. But if the piece cut off be small, it has but little attrac- tive power to keep it together, and the particles are so hot—or moving so fast—that every single molecule flies completely away and disappears into space. Does it not look extremely likely that here we have our temporary stars, bursting forth when the collision occurs, and disappearing when its particles travel away into space? It certainly appears very likely. But what about the two large pieces (the two wounded stars) ; a slice has been cut off each, and the hotter interior exposed; friction has also developed heat, and so when they become round again they will be hotter on one side than on the other. As they revolve they must almost certainly form a variable star, and the struggle of the two rotations will make this variation pass through long cycles, just as a spinning top oscillates if it has a kick. But as it would seem that two variable stars must be often pro- dueed together, the lists were searched to see if any pairs could be found, and a chart has been made from Chambers’ list, and it shows sixteen well- marked pairs, or thirty-two connected stars out of one hundred and twenty. Unless we suppose this spotted condition to be a disease and catching, it is difficult, except on this view, to account for the pairs. Not only do we thus find these pairs existing, but some variable stars are close to the places where old temporary stars formerly existed, and also variable stars have become ordinary stars, as we should expect them to do when the tem- perature became uniform; and doubtless when the whole are carefully matched, many will be found to be gradually approaching the state of uni- formity exhibited by ordinary stars. But it is not necessary to suppose thate th piece struck off each should always be such an excessively small ratio as to be projected into space, although the temperature produced by the collision will be almost always high enough to make gas of the coalesced part. This part may have mass enough to remain a permanent nebula. In this case reasons have been urged that render it probable that at first this gas would tend to take a spindle shape. Afterwards many possibilities present themselves according to the varying circumstances of the collision, for it is perfectly evident that these may be very numerous indeed. As the bodies may vary from cold dense solid bodies to rare masses of hot diffused gas, they may originally be moving very fast or very slowly ; they may have been spinning with great velocity or hardly rotating at all; they may be nearly the same size, or a very unequal pair ; and it does not need a Newton to see that any of these states will influence the result attained at collision and afterwards. The only effects which appear absolutely certain to follow partial impact are that rotation must ensue, that the matter will tend to Bickerton.— On the Genesis of Worlds and Systems. 193 spread out more or less in a plane, with frequently gas at the poles, and that the middle body produced by the collision will generally be very hot, proportional to the mass. In the papers presented to the Institute, the possible conditions of im- pact under which the different kinds of nebule may have been produced have been discussed. Thus it is suggested that the spiral nebule may have been produced by the collision of two previously existing nebulous masses, otherwise it appears that the extreme pressure would have destroyed the central part of the spiral. Singularly enough these nebule are found in the nebulous portion of the celestial sphere. Such evidence as this gives great probability to this theory. It is suggested that the comet-like nebule are masses with a high resultant velocity; that the planetary nebule are gaseous shells produced by the outrushing gas leaving the position of im- pact, and travelling outwards in every direction into space. Reasons based on the dynamical theory of gases have been urged why the heavier chemical molecules should return, and form the star which is very often seen at the centre of these bodies. Anyone who has followed this speculation must see that if this theory does represent the birth of nebulæ, they must be changing their shape, and sometimes new ones will be formed and old ones die out, and this is really the case. They vary; many new nebule have not only been found, but some have disappeared again, and many that used to exist are lost. But such mere gas as nebule must not be allowed to detain us. There are far more solid matters to be discussed yet. Thus it has been suggested that the Solar System is not the kind of family Laplace has pictured it, with the Sun as the parent and Neptune as the eldest brother, down to the youngest, Mercury, or perhaps Vulean. But it implies that the whole sys- tem are twin brothers and sisters, all born together; a deserted family whose severed parents are wildly travelling space. The collision which gave the Sun its heat gave it its rotation, threw off the masses which became planets, set these spinning also, giving them their accompanying masses of cosmical dust we call moons. That same great whirl set all the planets travelling in orbits all in the same direction, and nearly in one plane. The theory also attempts to show how the elliptical orbit became nearly circular ;—how the original rotation of the two colliding masses would disturb the exact symmetry of the rotation of the planets. It at- tempts to account for many things too numerous to speak of here. But you will say the Solar System could not have been born in two different ways. Well, hardly. Then you must dispose of Laplace’s nebular rings, Perhaps so; but even Laplace’s theory demands a rotary nebula to start with, and it would therefore still seem that he needs partial impact to 18 194 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. provide him with that. But I will tell you, in confidence, that although we have not dared yet to put it in black and white, yet, in our discussions, we have even hinted that Laplace may have been altogether wrong, and have whispered many, many reasons, on modern views of energy and the dynamical theory of gases, why we think so. I will tell you one. Accord- ing to Laplace, the surface of the nebulous sun should go on getting faster and faster as ring after ring was thrown off; but, as a matter of fact, the sun's energy of rotation is only one fifty-thousandth part of that necessary to throw off a ring, and those among us who believe in the conservation of energy, ask, where is that energy gone? It is thought possible that not only may bodies thus be set travelling around the central mass, but that frequently the resultant velocity left in them may carry them quite away from it altogether. It is suggested that possibly the comets and shooting- stars whieh iluminate our sky may have been thrown off at the birth of temporary stars or systems, and as they travel through space come acci- dentally into our Solar System, and are sometimes kept within it by the retarding action of an approaching planet, or by some other cause. Almost certainly they were not born with the Sun and planets ; for, of all the comets observed, as many go against the direction of the planets as with it, so we really must consider the comets as foreign intruders, and as such treat them with the contempt they deserve. But you will say millions of millions of meteorites strike the earth each year ;—exactly, probably scarcely a stellar collision has occurred which did not strew space with millions of homeless particles left to wander recklessly through space, until they met destruction at the hands of some pitying cosmical shark, who sympathized with them in their loneliness and so took them in. But if there is so much dust flying about space, it must interfere seriously with our view when we look at very distant objects, as muddy water is opaque if deep. Struve held manfully to his opinion, based on good evidence, that distant light did suffer extinction; and does this not appear to offer a very good reason for thinking he was But other things may be said of our two wounded stars—flint and steel— whom we left travelling in space. We have seen how a spark was struck off which became a temporary star, a nebula or a system, according to cireum- stances. We also suggested that flint and steel might become a pair of vari- able stars, getting more and more distant from each other. It is possible, however, if their original proper motion were small, or if they had much cut off them, that they may return again and form a connected pair, and add another to the many twin suns already existing. It is suggested that probably many of these became connected in this way. It is known that some binaries are variable. It is possible that these stars may come into BrckERTON.— On the Genesis of Worlds and Systems, 195 collision a second time, and, even as an extreme possibility, more than twice; and it does not appear unlikely that this is really the case with Tycho Brahe’s temporary star. There is one thing that makes it likely. All the text-books speak of it as a possible variable with a period of 313 years, Now, it appeared absolutely certain that if such a thing as consecu- tive collision did happen, it would be longer between the first pair of impacts than between the second pair of impacts; and, on taking the dates given by Herschel, it was found that the first interval was 319 and the second 308 years, thus adding another to the very remarkable series of coincidences which have been found in working out this hypothesis. But people are never satisfied without trying to ride a hobby to death ; and really it does seem going rather to extremes to suggest, as has been done, that nearly all we see in the heavens—all the millions of suns, all the nebule—are parts of one great system produced by the impact of two stupendous bodies meeting in free space—a system so extensive, that it would probably take light at least a hundred years to pass through the mass ; while of the bodies themselves, some are so big that the number of times our sun would be required to measure their volume must be reckoned by thousands. Thus has the hobby been goaded on, and it is not absolutely certain that it has thrown its riders yet. It is true Proctor has been for years carefully laying down a veritable railroad for just such a hobby ; when . he was working out his great research on the visible universe, so that it was easy work for it, it ran like a snowball down a hill, gathering speed and proportion as it went. But I must tell you how Proctor did this work. He collected statistics of the number of stars and nebule, of star-clusters and star-motion. He and his friends placed all these on charts, and when they were finished, a single undoubted system was seen, which he describes roughly as a ring or spiral of stars, with our solar system at or about the centre, and with two caps of nebule covering the poles of this ring. So when the picture of the visible universe, given by Proctor, came to be examined, it was found to be so like that which had been suggested as likely to result from “ partial impact," that it was felt the visible universe itself must be one of its numerous offspring. But what does such an idea of the origin of the universe suggest to our mind of the contents of space generally? Clearly, that if two such bodies, why not many, some almost infinitely large compared to them? Why not go with Kant, and think that as the earth and its moon are part of the Solar System, as this system is part of the galaxy, why not the galaxy a part of a still more imposing system ? Anyhow, the idea of space, suggested by this theory, is that it contains an infinite number of masses, varying in size from the particle of hydrogen to the stupendous mass which physicists look forward to as the final condition of the visible universe. 196 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Of all the speculations of modern thought no two ideas have obtained stronger hold upon the human mind than the indestructibility of matter and of energy. But although energy is indestructible, it is generally sup- posed it will pass into an unavailable form, and although matter cannot be lessened in quantity, yet it is believed it will all be aggregated into one stupendous mass. Consequently our great mathematical physicists look forward to a time when any motion but heat will be impossible, and all life will be extinct. Yet this dreary, this repugnant conclusion, has apparently been the only possible result that could happen from any of the standpoints from which the laws of nature have hitherto been viewed. It is no small recommendation that the theory of “ partial impact” offers a possible mode of escape from this melancholy prospect. It suggests that if gravitation does aggregate and tend to drain space, impact produces dispersion. Every- thing moves more slowly at a distance from an attractive source, so if bodies are moving indiscriminately in all directions, it is clear that where they move most slowly, they will certainly congregate together, thus tending in the opposite way to gravity, and in this way may be kept up a more or less uniform distribution of matter in space. The theory shows that the radiated heat of the sun falls upon the cosmical dust, which shuts us in as a curtain, and it is thus prevented from being lost; it also shows how, from various reasons, we must suppose that inconceivable numbers of particles of cold gas are slowly travelling space, and as these particles touch any part of this heated matter, it uses the heat of the body to project itself at increased velocity into more distant regions of space, there perhaps helping to build up new bodies capable of carrying on anew all the wonderfully complieated funetions which matter and energy are playing in the visible universe. In this way we hope that this theory will remove these repulsive blots of dissipated energy and aggregated matter, which deface the other- wise fair and stately structure reared by modern science, so that the intellectual cravings of the human mind may find in it the invigoration and rest which they require. Thus, the entire pieture this hypothesis presents to the mind is that of & Cosmos, infinite and immortal. In it a being travelling through eternity, on the wings of light, would see as little permanent change as does the sea-bird over the restless ocean. He would sometimes be present at the nativity of galaxies, see solar systems in all stages, see suns absorb planet after planet, each time flickering up for a few thousand years, and finally, after having devoured all its family, shrink smaller and smaller, and then become less and less brilliant, until the last faint glimmer had died out, and a vast cinder is all that remains of that former scene of teaming life and brilliant beauty. Then he might watch the approach of dead suns, Bickerton.—On the Birth of Nebula. 197 and see, Phoenix-like, new suns arise from those cold masses of ashes, and as he watches the amazing flash of the collision, he may see flights of comets and meteors emerge from the flames and start on their long journey. Travelling on, he may see worlds absorb their enveloping nebular curtains, see others solidifying. In some, witness the garment of organized life gradually extending itself and clothing the surface with vitality; and should he stay to take a detailed look, he would probably sometimes see forms of life so strange, so weird, that the animated engines of Erewhon would be commonplace compared to them. Is it possible that in some white hot body he would see viscous silicon building itself into complex protoplasmic molecular skeletons, developing organ after organ, and breathing forth its halogen breath ? Perchance he might watch a silicon monster tenderly waiting on a sickly friend, and feeding it with delicately-flavoured molten flint broth. But methinks I hear someone whisper, *I thought so. Un- doubtedly he is mad." — So, remembering the fate of Solomon de Caus, and being desirous of retaining my liberty, I conclude by thanking you for the attention with which you have listened to me. Art. XVI.—On the Birth of Nebule. By Prof. A. W. Bicxerton, F.C.S., President of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd July, 1879.] Ix the following paper I propose to discuss the generic methods by which nebule may be produced ; and also attempt to show how the various kinds of nebule, of definite structure, may have had their special form given them. The word **nebulm," in this paper, will not apply to all gaseous bodies. Thus the Sun is not improbably gaseous, but of such density as to give a spectrum broken only by dark lines. On the other hand, I have shown it is extremely probable, that all space is filled with more or less diffused gas, not dense enough to be considered a nebula. I shall apply the term to bodies rare enough to give a bright line spectrum, and dense enough to be visible in the telescope, or to be associated by gravitation. Nebule may be formed by the aggregation of very diffused gas, by the volatilization and diffusion of dense masses, and by dense masses passing into diffused gases, being there volatilized and attracting gas towards them. The conversion of dense bodies into nebule is probably chiefly effected by impact, as already suggested by Croll and others, but I shall attempt to show that the ordinary idea of complete impact cannot play such an im- portant part as “ partial impact.” I have already shown, that the partial 198 Transactions, — Miscellaneous. impact of approximately equal bodies has a far higher probability than com- plete impact, and also that, cosmically, partial impact has a far higher constructive capacity. I wish to state that I do not mean, that between unequal bodies partial impact is more frequent than complete. It is certain that the impact of particles of gas upon a body such as our Sun, must practically always be complete. Mr. Beverly has made a calculation of probabilities on the best assumption of the conditions of space attainable, and he finds that in all bodies having a greater ratio of diameter than 6 to 1, complete impact is more likely than partial. That when the equality of diameter is nearer than 6 to 1, partial impact is more likely. Therefore, as an impact of any bodies, whose diameters show a greater ratio than this, is an absolutely insignificant cosmical event, unless one of the bodies had a stupendous proper motion compared to its size, the matter may be thus considered to be placed on a mathematical basis. In calculations relating to the energy of bodies formed from diffused gas, it is impossible to talk of their total energy, as such energy is indefinite if we only consider the body as becoming infinitely small, and it is clearly impossible to say how small a body (such as our Sun, for instance) may become. I have therefore found it much more convenient to treat of the potential energy converted into other forms of energy, which I call ** changed potential energy." I believe it to be a mistake to suppose that very highly-diffused gas, having a definite limit of volume, is necessarily hot. It appears to me, that if the gas be so much diffused that its surface-attraction is very small—that it must be cold, or dissipating into space. There are four different lines of reasoning which point to the conclusion, that as a nebula or gaseous sun gets smaller, it gets hotter. I shall therefore assume that cold, infinitely diffused, disas- sociated gas, possesses a maximum energy. Students of kinetics will readily be able to prove that were our Sun twice its present mass and twice its diameter, the energy of attracting a particle from infinity to its surface, without initial motion, would be exactly the same as at present. It can also be shown that such a Sun has lost exactly as much potential energy in forming itself from diffused gas as two such Suns as our own Sun. Therefore, were two such Suns as ours to come into impact, coalesce, and expand, until the whole of the heat of the collision were used in expansion, then the new Sun would have twice the mass, twice the diameter, one-fourth the density, and the same temperature as that of either of the original bodies. Thus it may be seen that two gaseous Suns attracting each other from infinity, without initial motion, were they to produce one Sun at the same temperature, it would only be twice the diameter, Bicxerton.—On the Birth of Nebula. 199 There are reasons to believe that this point of equality of temperature `- is also a stable condition. Of course, the original suns were in a state of gaseous equilibrium, and as the density of the new Sun is one-fourth of each of the original, and the surface is just four times as great, hence the surface-pressure is one-fourth, and the density one-fourth, the temperature being the same, clearly, according to Marriot’s law, this is a stable condition. This would, doubtless, be absolutely true, were the bodies homogeneous, but, as I have shown previously, there is every reason to suppose that “ selective escape" would ensue, and would slightly alter the final result. Thus it is proved that the complete impact of equal bodies, without initial motion, will not produce a nebula (disregarding ‘selective escape"). But a matter of great importance to other parts of the theory is shown here. An impact tends to lessen density, consequently the density of very large masses may reasonably be supposed to be much less than that of smaller bodies. When the available energy of the visible Universe, on the supposition of its formation by partial impact, comes to be considered, this may be an impor- tant point. It is easy to show that in the complete impact of bodies of unequal size the possibility of forming a nebula is still smaller; hence, as it is certain that the complete impact of bodies, without original proper motion, cannot much more than double the diameter of a star, it is clear it cannot produce a nebula, unless the mass were almost nebulous before. Of course, as the final result of an immense number of complete impacts, without loss of energy, & nebula might be produced, and this would be greatly aided by any proper motion any of the bodies might possess. In complete impact, with an original proper motion of a few hundred miles a second, two bodies like our Sun would be converted into a nebula; such an impact, it appears to me, would produce a roughly-spherical nebula without rotation. To produce rotation, it appears that the impact must be either partial, or between unequal bodies. To produce a nebula of definite form, other than spheroidal, appears to demand the same conditions. In the partial impact of two bodies having a proper motion sufficient to take the two bodies away from each other after impact, nebule of various kinds may be produced, as the coalesced part struck off from the two bodies may be of very small mass ; yet the velocity at which the two bodies would pass each other would be very great, hence the amount of changed potential energy may be enough, and more than enough, to completely diffuse the coalesced mass into space as gas, and clearly intermediate conditions may make nebule of every degree of density. Having shown that partial im- pact has energy enough to form diffused nebule, the kinematic possibilities will be discussed in the origin of special forms of nebulz. 200 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. In my paper on the Visible Universe,* I have given reasons to show that possibly the whole of the galactic poles consist of more or less diffused nebulous matter. As the reasoning, upon which I based this conclusion, appears to have been too condensed to be readily understood, I will give it a a little more in detail. Suppose the plane of the paper to contain the orbits of the two impacting bodies; when during the impact the centres of the two bodies are at their nearest point, it is probable the gaseous pressure produced by the impact will be near its maximum. It is certain that this pressure can only cause an escape of gas in a plane perpendicular to—and bisecting—the line joining the two centres of the two spheres. But the chief part of the material left by unbalanced momentum will be in the intersection of this plane and the plane of the paper, hence the only direction in which the pressure can act will be in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper. But this direction is the same as the axis of the resultant rotation due to the impact, and perpendicular to the plane in which the general mass of the matter will be distributed (which is clearly the plane of the paper). After the central mass has become free from the two bodies, the pressure will act in all directions, but the gas extended during the impact will more or less continue the direction it has taken, and will, doubtless, to a large extent separate itself from the other portions. As its direction will be perpendicular to the general movement, the polar nebular caps, and not unlikely all annular nebule which accompany the galaxy, were probably so formed. Having thus shown that the poles of the milky way were probably at one time covered with diffused nebulous matter, I will discuss the mode in which aggregations may be formed. It appears certain that any very large cosmical bodies would have myriads of bodies travelling around them in all orbits. In the case of the two large bodies which formed the Universe, it would, therefore, probably be so likewise. Many of these bodies would be entrapped by the outrushing gas, and would be carried with it in its journey. The gas would also meet the bodies already existing in the portion of space through which it travelled. At first, the temperature would be so high that the smaller bodies would certainly be heated and volatilized, but would render the mass more or less irregular, and these irregularities, if very considerable, would tend to increase themselves. The larger masses might form permanent nebule; in some cases, these would ultimately become stars. As the nebulous mass became colder, a peculiar selective action would not improbably tell upon it. If the temperature of the mass be uniform, the velocity of mean-square of the molecules of the several chemical elements will be inversely as the square-root of these molecules’ weight. A body travelling through this mass may have sufficient attractive * Vide ante, Art. XIII. Bicrertox.—On the Birth of Nebula. $01 powers to collect up the slow heavy molecules, but not the lighter ones, and again the lightest molecules may have velocity enough to gradually escape the mass. Thus, the gas left would onl y betheint liat lecular weights. It is a peculiar coincidence that many nebule give only a few spectral lines as though of a single gas, and that gas in some cases nitrogen, an intermediate weight. It is somewhat singular that lithium and rhodium should not be seen in these nebule, unless these elements should be cos- mically rare. In some cases the temperature may, perhaps, be below that of dissociation of the compounds of these elements, and they may be chemi- cally combined, and their compound molecules may be heavy enough to be picked up by attraction. The star of 1866, before it faded, gave a feeble continuous spectrum with apparently the lines of nitrogen, as though selective escape had acted in such a way that the heavy molecules had become dense enough to produce the continuous spectrum, all the hydrogen had escaped, and the nitrogen was forming a nebula. Thus it appears, that in a large diffused nebulous mass we may have aggregation by original irregularities ; and also by bodies passing into the mass and being volatil- ized, then gradually aggregating the denser molecules arround it. Finally, these may become stars, the hydrogen may escape, and the nitrogen may be the only part left in a sufficiently gaseous state to give bright lines. It does not appear impossible, that a mass of gas may be at too high a temperature for dense aggregation, and may be orbitally connected, and the free molecules may be revolving around the central mass, the nucleus gradually picking it up as its velocity was lessened by loss of heat by radia- tion, or the velocity diminished by impact, or its direction so changed as to impinge upon the central mass. : Having thus glanced at the various generic modes of the origin of nebulæ, I will shortly discuss their spherical forms and the mode in which they may have originated ; but I shall not enter too much into detail, or give any lengthy demonstrations, until I have laid the whole of the broader generaliza- tions before the Institute. Nebule are roughly divided into resolvable and irresolvable nebulsm, according as to whether the telescope can resolve them into stars or not. They are distinguished by their forms into— Nebulous stars Spherical nebulae Spindle » Spiral F Cometary ,, Planetary ,, 202 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. The roughly-spherical nebule are by far the most numerous in the heavens, and are chiefly found distributed at the poles of the galactic circle. It is probable that most of these, and also many nebulous stars, may have been formed by volatilization of bodies passing into heated gas, or by aggre- gation, in the manner already described. Some may have been formed by impact, either complete or partial. But it is in studying the nebule of definite forms other than spherical, that the peculiarly striking capacity of partial impact to explain phenomena of the heavens becomes apparent. The spiral nebule have been probably formed by the partial impact of bodies already existing as nebule before the impact. The forms of the spiral nebule were probably at first spindle-shaped, but as the chief part of the ends of the spindle would belong each to its respective original body, its motion would be directed outward, whilst the inner parts would be in a state of rotation. This would gradually convert the whole into a spiral, or rather a double spiral. Every gradation from a spindle-shape to a spiral are to be found in the heavens; there are spindles showing no signs of spiral, some as in Leo, showing the incipient spiral in the centre, and others in whieh the spiral is very perfect, and others, again, in which the coils of the spiral appear to have passed into a roughly spherical nebula. In the earlier discussions on the origin of the forms of these bodies consi- derable difficulty was experienced in understanding how a spiral nebula could have been formed, as it appeared that the extreme pressure of the central mass of the gas must tend to destroy all the spiral structure, espe- cially at the centre of the nebula. When, however, the idea of the impact of previously-existing nebule occurred, all the difficulties were removed. . But it is evident that if spiral nebule were formed by the impact of nebulæ, they would not be found in the galactic circle with the planetary and other nebule of regular shape, but at the galactic poles with the general mass of spherical nebule. On looking upon a celestial globe this will be found to be the case. I am aware that much discussion has recently taken place as to the existence of these nebule, but it seems almost impossible but that some impacts producing them must have taken place, so that not only do I believe that their existence will be clearly demonstrated, but that many of the spherical nebule, when carefully examined, will be found to be roughly spiral, as Proctor has demonstrated the Universe to be. Probably some of the double nebule are at present in a state of impact; if so, their form ought to alter materially during a single generation. I do not imagine that the spindle-shaped nebula is confined to the im- pact of rare bodies. It appears to me that all partial impacts will tend to produce a spindle-shaped body at first; this matter is fully discussed in a paper on the general problem of stellar impact.* The shape may be re- * Vide ante. Bicxerton.—On the Birth of Nebula. 208 tained until a spindle nebula of considerable dimensions is formed. It is not difficult to account for the origin of cometary nebule. These have donbtless been formed by an impact in which a want of balance in the momentum left a considerable residual velocity in the nebula, and that as it travels it becomes smaller, both by losing the hotter and more volatile portions, and by its own condensation. The planetary nebule have always been considered the most wonderful objects in the entire heavens. The Herschels devoted much time to their discussion, and in my opinion conclusively proved them to be self-luminous hollow spheres of most stupendous diameter, several of them being many times larger than the most of our most distant planets. Recent spectro- scopic observations have proved them to consist of gas; so that the problem before us is—to account for gigantic slightly-luminous hollow spheres of gas many thousand millions of miles in diameter. Supposing we have an immense crowd collected in one spot, and that each one begins to move on indiscriminately in a straight line, and each if * striking against anyone goes on again in the direction the blow has started _ him, and all continue to move straight on indefinitely : it is certain that in a few days the spot where the crowd was will be clear, and an immense irregular circle of people will exist, and will constantly be extending it- self. This I believe to be the condition of a planetary nebula; an impact has taken place; on grounds of probability it was most likely partial; but the physical conditions would be nearly the same were it a com- plete impact of bodies with a stupendous original proper motion. As I have already stated, such an event appears to me, however, to be of amazing improbability. Hither of these two suppositions will supply us with a gaseous body of such a high temperature compared with its mass, that every molecule will have sufficient velocity to escape the gravitating influence of the mass and travel straight on into space. For example: If a particle of gas at the surface of the Sun had a velocity of four hundred miles à second, such a particle would pass out of our system; and it is almost certain that had every particle this velocity—that is to say, tho necessary temperature—the Sun would become a planetary nebula or a hollow shell of luminous gas. It is a remarkable confirmation of this theory, that Lord Lindsay has reported that the temporary star of 1877 has become a planetary nebula or a hollow shell of luminous gas. I have already shown how selective escape may have produced a nebula con- sisting of intermediate, or in fact any group of approximately equal mole- cular weights; and I need not say such reasoning applies equally to planetary nebule; the nucleus being in some cases the aggregated heavy molecules, These bodies are doubtless dynamically in an unstable con- 204 Transactions, — Miscellaneous. dition ; if not of great age, they are probably increasing their diameter, which may continue until they diffuse themselves into space. If very old, they have probably reached their limit of size, and the molecules may have so far lost their velocity by radiation during molecular impact, and by work done against the gravitating influence of the mass, as to be on their return journey, and in the act of forming themselves into a condensed nebula, and finally an ordinary star. It is singular. It is singular that it is only in the galactic zone that planetary nebulæ occur, and it is clearly in this zone that the great distribution of stars would lead us to expect many impacts. It appears possible to explain the origin of the annular nebule by partial impact in two different ways, and there may be representatives of both in the heavens, which will be found when the observation and classification of nebule are more satisfactorily done. In a former paper I have hinted at one of these methods, and the other explanation is the same as that given of the origin of the visible Universe, which would not improbably appear an annular nebula were it possible to see it ata sufficiently distant point in space (but which I have already shown, owing to the probable enormous distribution of small dark bodies in space, is unlikely,—as it is unlikely we see any distant universe). It appears that all annular nebule are more or less resolvable. There are many points of interest in connection with the origin of these small stars. Most of these have already been discussed in this paper in connection with the origin of nebule by aggregation ; but probably almost the entire ring consists of those parts of the original - bodies which were not very much affected by the impact as far as regards temperature, and much of this resolvable matter is not unlikely the dense, more infusible, part of the matter which very likely occupied the centre of the original bodies, and which was swept out into a circle, or rather two half-spirals, by the residual motion and attraction immediately after impact. There is one point in connection with the origin of the very slight eccen- tricities of all bodies moving in elliptical orbits (which is probably the con- dition of some of these bodies in annular nebule)—such as many double stars, and the members of our Solar System, whose nature has hardly been sufficiently noticed. On first passing away from the central mass, their motion is such that their orbit would be highly eccentric, if there were no agencies at work tending to render them circular. I have already shown that there are many such, and I will attempt to make this point clear. Supposing the body to leave in advance of the general body of the gas, to travel to its extreme distance, return and plunge into the body of the gas, when it has gone some distance into the gas the attraction acting upon it FRrankianp.—On the Doctrine of Mind-Stuff. 205 is clearly less than was all the material inside its orbit. If its original orbit had been such that, when at perihelion, it occupied such a position that, were it to return to the same place, on its return nearly all the matter would be outside its orbit, there would be scarcely any central attraction. Therefore, it would not come to that position, but must keep a long way from the centre; in other words, its orbit has become enormously more circular, or less eccentric. I will only, in this paper, call attention to the enormous mass of evi- dence that is accumulating respecting the change of forms, and the sudden appearance and disappearance of nebule ; proving that they are not distant universes, and also giving great probability to the theory of their origin, which this paper suggests. Arr. XVII.—On the Doctrine of Mind-Stuf. By Freprrick W. FRANKLAND. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 27th September, 1879.} Tue objects of the present paper are, to describe briefly a theory or doctrine of existence, expounded by the late Prof. Clifford, in an article ** On the Nature of Things in Themselves," but arrived at independently by several persons—amongst others by myself, as far back as the year 1870,—and to propound and assist toward the solution of a series of problems which arise in connection with this theory. The starting-point of the theory is the position, commonly associated with the names of Berkeley and Hume, that all the properties of material objects, as investigated by the physical and natural sciences, are capable of being analysed into possibilities of feeling, or relations among possibilities of feeling. Thus the redness of a rose is the possibility of a certain visual sensation, and the roundness of an orange is a complex of relations among the possibilities of certain visual, tactual, and muscular sensations. Grant- ing this position, it obviously follows that every assertion of physical science —every assertion, that is, respecting matter, force, or motion—is merely an assertion respecting possibilities of sensation or feeling. The truth of this position is demonstrated by a process of self-observation or introspection, and must be verified by each individual for himself. It is believed by the present writer that the conclusion arrived at cannot be resisted by any mind which performs the requisite process of self-analysis with perfect precision and faithfulness. The only concrete realities, therefore—the only “ things-in-themselves ” that we know of, are feelings. Psychology is the only concrete science. The word *'feeling'" is used here to denote any mental state whatever. 206 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. The feelings or mental states of which we have experience comprise the comparatively vivid ones known as sensations and emotions, the fainter copies of these, sometimes called * ideas," which constitute the material of which thought is woven, and certain unique states of mind which form integral parts of volition and belief states of mind which assimilate most nearly to emotions, but which may be described as somewhat too colourless, if the term be allowable, to be fairly classed with these. All the real existences we know of being mental states, the totality of existence falls for each individual into two sections: his own mental states, i.e. mental states which form a part of his own consciousness, and mental states not his own. The former constitute a stream or chain, extending from a past that is more or less remote into a future almost wholly unknown ; his present condition of mind being a transverse section of the stream, or a link in the chain. His knowledge of the portion anterior to the present moment is obtained partly by the faculty of memory, and partly by a system of inferences; his anticipations as to the portion that is stil future are grounded entirely on inference. Now, by a process essentially identical with that by which he infers these future portions, and some of the past portions, of his own stream or chain of consciousness, each individual comes to believe, at a very early stage of his career, in the existence of other streams or chains of conscious- ness which are more or less like his own, but which are entirely outside it. He believes that his fellow-creatures are conscious beings, and that the higher animals are sentient. The process by which this conclusion is reached, and by which it may be justified, is fully described by Mr. Mill in a well-known passage of his “Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy.” There is a further inference drawn which is of great impor- tance, and which I hope will engage our attention in a future paper. The inference is drawn that there exist relations of sequence and of synchronism between his own feelings and the feelings which compose the other streams of consciousness. These relations had already been recognized among his own feelings, and might easily be inferred as existing among the feelings of any other one stream of consciousness taken by itself. But it might seem a more perilous step to infer cross-relations of this kind between different streams; nevertheless, this inference, endorsed every hour a thousand times by the common sense of mankind, is one which I think can be shown to be logically justifiable. Without, however, dwelling any longer on this point, we may note that each individual conceives of other streams of conscious- ness as running parallel to his own in Time, and that their outsideness to his own consciousness is quite a different thing from the apparent outside- ness of any material body. A material body, or, as it is usually called in Se ee ee ee ee ee Oy ee ee eee, AI eee uni ae T IOS RUE FnaxkLAND.—Un the Doctrine of Mind-Stuff. 207 the language of metaphysics, an object (even if it be the farthest fixed star) is an abstraction the primary reference of which is to a concrete something inside the individual’s consciousness, namely a certain group of his own sensations; while its appearance of externality is derived from the fact that it also refers to actual or possible sensations outside his consciousness, namely in the consciousness of other beings who do or might exist. These other streams of consciousness, and not the earth, air, and sky, are the true ‘“ External World" to each individual. The outsideness or externality of these ** other streams of consciousness,” of which each one among us infers the existence, and of the feelings composing them, appears to me to be very happily expressed in the term by which Prof. Clifford has proposed to denote them, namely the term eject. The minds of my readers are “ejects” to me, and my mind is an “eject” to them. The use of this term also places in marked contrast the genuine outsideness of these inferred existences with the pseudo-externality, so to speak, of the material universe. So far, nothing new has been enunciated. The thinkers of the school to which I belong, maintain that, paradoxical as some of the above asser- tions may sound, (for instance, the denial of the concrete existence of matter,) the common sense of mankind will bear us out in them, if only its deliverances be analysed and formulated with precision. It is only when we take a further step that our doctrine parts company with the belief of the uninstructed. This further step is taken in answer to the question: * Are there ejects which form no part of any consciousness? Are there ` non-personal ejects?” and to the further question: “If so, what is their nature?" | Are there ejects which form no part of any consciousness? In other words, besides the consciousnesses of intelligent beings, each with its rich phantasmagoria of sensations, and its varied wealth of ideas and emotions, are there any real existences ? My readers will immediately reply, ** To be sure. There is the earth, with all the material objects on its surface, there are the sun, moon, and stars, and, in fact, the whole material universe 2" This, however, would be a reply which would not meet the question at all. For, as indicated in the first portion of this paper, if any one will honestly examine the nature of his conceptions respecting material objects, he will find that they resolve themselves wholly into conceptions of possibilities of sensation in himself and in other sentient beings who do, or might, exist: and, if all these possibilities of sensation be abstracted, he will be much puzzled io attach a meaning to the assertion that there is a residuary existence behind. It will not suffice, therefore, to answer the question by merely affirming the existence of a material universe: we must also state whether we believe that, besides the possibilities of sensation, and the relations 208 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. among these, which constitute the whole content of physical science, there exists a universe of realities inaccessible to physical science, on which the possibilities of sensation are dependent. In the language of metaphysics the question may be thus stated :—Does the phenomenal world, or world of appearances, correspond to and depend for its existence on a noumenal world, or world of realities, wholly outside us? The answer given by the majo- rity of metaphysicians is, I believe, that there does exist such a world of realities, but that its nature must be for ever hidden from us. Physical science, they would say, investigates the properties of things as they appear to us—investigates the outsides of things, so to speak; but things as they are in themselves, the inner nature or insides of things (though we may be certain of their existence, whether intuitively or as a result of legitimate inference), are inaccessible to human research. This I take to be the doctrine of Kant, and also the doctrine of Herbert Spencer. Now, the doctrine I wish to describe this evening, is partly in agreement with the foregoing doctrine, and partly in disagreement with it. There is a universe of realities, it affirms, underlying the phenomena which it is the business of physical science to investigate, but its nature is not wholly unknown to us. For let us consider a particular section of physiological phenomena— the phenomena of the human brain. In the changes which take place, during life, in the grey matter of the brain, we have a field for physical research. These changes belong to the world of phenomena—to the world of “ things as they appear to us." They may be described in the language of physical science, and statements respecting them would resolve them- selves, in last analysis, into statements of possibilities of sensation, and relations among those possibilities, in the mind of a supposed observer. But now, according to both the doctrines we are considering, this complex of phenomena—this group of changes in the grey matter of the brain— must have a complex of noumena, or “ things-in-themselves," underlying it. What is this complex of “ things-in-themselves?” It is not an object of physical research. Physical research stops at the changes in the grey matter of the brain—stops at a group of appearances. What is the complex of “ things-in-themselves’’ which underlies these appearances? Now we know, or at least have very strong ground for believing, that some of the changes in the grey matter of the brain correspond to feelings or thoughts in the mind of the person to whom the brain belongs. Accordiny to the doctrine of Mind-Stuff, these feelings or thoughts are the nowmena—the ** things- in-themselves "—which underlie the changes in the grey matter of the brain. What appears to an outside observer—or rather, what would appear to him, were the skull transparent, as a change in the grey matter of the brain—is in reality a feeling or thought in the mind of the person to whom the brain FnaxkLAND.—On the Doctrine of Mind-Stuff. 209 belongs. This feeling or thought is not an object of physical research. It belongs to the world of noumena, or *'things-in-themselves," with which physical science has no concern, or with which it is only concerned in so far as the hypothesis of the existence of such a world is required to account for that world of phenomena, the laws of which it is the business of physi- cal science to investigate. Thus we see that in regard to at any rate one part of it, it is not true to say that the noumenal world is veiled from us. We know it by introspection ; and we know it as feeling or thought. We are ourselves—our minds, I mean, not our bodies—strands in the web of the noumenal world ; and therefore, although no part of that world can ever be investigated by physical science, we see that a portion of it forms the subject-matter of subjective psychology, and is consequently not altogether unknown to us. Of course it is only one’s own consciousness which one knows with any great precision. I do not know whether the sensation which my neighbour calls green is qualitatively quite the same as that which I myself call green. The phenomena of colour-blindness demonstrate conclusively that in some cases it is not. Still, I have, in a general way, an acquaintance with the consciousness of my fellow-creatures and of the higher animals. They constitute the portion of the noumenal world which we obviously know something about—something which physical science could never tell us. And now, what are we to say about the rest of the noumenal world— the remaining strands of the web? There is a remaining portion, for we have agreed that there are noumena or realities underlying the phenomena of inorganic and of non-cerebral organic nature. What are these realities like? Now, the doctrine of Mind-Stuff asserts that these realities are made up of the same stuff or elements as the human mind, only that the elements are combined together in a less complicated way. The universe, according to this view, is a stupendous web of mind-stuff, the elementary strands of which are ever weaving themselves into new patterns from eternity to eternity. The most complex of the compound strands are the minds of intelligent beings, and from these there is every degree of complexity down to the elementary strands themselves, which correspond to the motions of inorganic matter. Whether the elements of the noumenal world are described as being themselves feelings, or only as the elementary constituents of feelings, appears to me to be merely a question of language. If we adopt the former phraseology, the doctrine may fitly be called that of Omnisentiency. This was the name given to it by a former fellow-student, Mr. William Boulting, now a member of the-medical profession in Eng and myself, when we arrived at it, independently but almost simultaneously, in the year 1870. Although it appears that we have been anticipated by 20 910 Transactions.—M iscellaneous. Professor Wundt, the eminent German physiologist, and perhaps by others, we may claim as much originality as any of the exponents of the doctrine, and priority over most. I now turn to some of the problems which are suggested by the general theory of things we have been considering. First: In what relation does the doctrine of Omnisentiency or Mind- Stuff stand to the various theories which have been propounded for explaining, on the principles of rational mechanics, the phenomena of the physical universe ? In what relation does it stand to the theories of atoms, ether, ultramundane corpuscles, ring-vortices, and the like? Now, in the first place, it does not either exclude or supersede them. There is nothing in the doctrine of Mind-Stuff incompatible with any of these mechanical theories. The theories in question are one and all of them statements of quantitative relations among possibilities of feeling, and are not in any way concerned with the noumenal realities on which these possibilities depend. The universe of matter is a complex of possibilities of feeling, and these possibilities are found to stand in certain quantitative relations to one another. These relations are of two orders,—relations of sequence and relations of co-existence. The former are believed to depend, without exception, on causal relations—relations spoken of as the laws of nature;— the latter are space-relations, and may be described as facts of structure. All the mechanical theories I have alluded to, therefore, and indeed all mechanical theories that can be framed, are affirmations either of mechanical laws or faets of structure, or both. Setting out from the relations of sequence and facts of structure which we observe to exist among the possibilities of sensation which constitute the material world, the physical investigator does one of two things. He either infers, by a complete induc- tion, the existence of such and such causal relations, and then deduces facts of structure which are not capable of being observed; or, he assumes the existence of certain facts of structure, and perhaps also of certain causal relations, and shows that by known causal relations these will lead to the observed facts of structure. In the former ease, his process is one of scientific demonstration, in the latter he constructs a scientific hypothesis. To the former category belongs the reasoning by which we infer that matter consists of molecules (in other words, that its structure is discontinuous), and that there is an ether; to the latter, belong such hypotheses as those of ring- vortices and ultra-mundane corpuscles. But now, observe, we are throughout dealing with quantitative relations among abstract possibilities. The whole of mechanical science deals with such relations. It is in no way coneerned with the inner qualitative nature of the real existences on which ‘these possibilities depend. These real existences are aggregations of Mind-Stuff. Franxianp.—On the Doctrine of Mind-Stuff. 211 Psychology is the only science which deals with them; and even that deals only with the most complex of them. Therefore the Doctrine of Mind-Stuff can in no way supersede the necessity of, still less can it exclude, these mechanical explanations of the universe. But although the principles of rational mechanics, and the hypotheses by which, in conjunction with the former, it is sought to explain the observed phenomena and structure of the material world, are in no way in conflict with our doctrine, we shall presently see that they may come to have a very important bearing on the determination of the particular form which that doctrine ought to assume. For the doctrine asserts that the possibilities of sensation which constitute a material object, correspond to, and depend for their existence on, some reality outside us or “ eject” of which Mind-Stuff units are the elementary constituents. Hence every conception of mechanieal science must denote what would be called in mathematics some function of Mind-Stuff. Matter, defined as that which has mass or inertia, must be a function of Mind-Stuff. Motion, force, and energy, must be functions of Mind-Stuff. The interesting question then suggests itself: What functions, severally, are mass, momentum, energy, etc., of the noumenal reality which we have designated Mind-Stuff. This question has been touched upon in a profound passage of the late Professor Clifford's review of a work entitled ** The Unseen Universe.” Professor Clifford there indicates that the answer to the question, if it can be answered, must depend on the knowledge we can gain respecting Mind- Stuff itself—knowledge which can only be acquired within the domain of psychology. Our feelings, he points out, have certain relations of contiguity or nextness in space, exemplified by contiguous elements of a visual image, and certain relations of sequence in time, exemplified by all feelings what- ever. “ Out of these two relations the future theorist must build up the world as best he may. Two things may, perhaps, help him: there are several lines of mathematical thought which seem to indicate that distance and quantity may come to be expressed in terms of position, in the wide sense of an analysis situs, while the theory of the curvature of space hints at a possibility that matter and motion may be expressed in terms of ex- tension only.''* * I take this to mean, that if we admit as a mend — the properties of space may show a sensible divergence from the Euclidean , if we consider very small parts of it—we get at a way of defining matter in R of the space which it occupies. ultimate atom of matter (perhaps infinitesimal as compared with the chemical atom) would on that view be merely an infinitesimal erumple in space. All physical science would then be reduced to —— geometry, and space-elements would be the analogues of Mind-Stuff The form: nica Sa SALA TCR 919 Transactions.—M iscellaneous. Now it is my ambition to follow out the line of thought here indicated. It would be impossible to do so fully within the limits of a single paper, but a beginning may be made. In the first place I desire to supply what I conceive to be a serious omission in Professor Clifford’s enumeration of the data respecting Mind-Stuff which the “future theorist” has at his disposal. Feelings not only have relations of contiguity or nextness in space, and of sequenee in time, but they also have two other quantitative aspects of very great importance, namely degrees of intensity and differences of volume. We are conscious that sensations differ in intensity; thus an acute pain is felt to be a more intense sensation than a faint smell. Also, we are con- scious that sensations of about equal intensity differ in something we call volume or massiveness: thus a sensation of general weariness, though perhaps felt to be of about equal intensity with a particular ache, is distinguished (apart from its qualitative difference) as possessing greater mass or volume. Lastly, we know that there exist causal relations among our feelings. Thus the group of ideas* characterized as the realization of a danger is followed by the emotion of terror, and the constancy of the sequence indicates that we have here to deal with a causal relation. Hence the data we possess are these :—a complex of feelings perpetually undergoing transformations, causal relations between successive feelings, relations of contiguity or next- ness among a few of the synchronous ones (though this appears to be an exceptional phase of psychic structure, only to be found, as far as I am aware, among simultaneous visual impressions which co-exist in a space or manifoldness of two dimensions), qualitative resemblances and differences, variations in intensity, and variations in volume or mass. These are the materials from which we must construct our conception, save as to certain spots necessarily a very dim one, of the noumenal world. And these are the materials which we must connect, in the best way we ean, with the elementary factors of our conception of the world of phenomena. We must endeavour to establish a correspondence between feelings, their causal and topical relations, their intensities and volumes, on the one hand, and the dynamical conceptions of mass, momentum, force, energy, etc., on the other. Now, as a preliminary to the working out of this correspondence it will perhaps be advisable to take a brief survey of the ultimate dynamical conceptions, and of their relations to one another. see, that space may be not only not homogeneous in ultimate structure, but not even infutely divisible. It may consist of indivisible units. In that case there would be such as absolute magnitude, and measuring would be reduced to counting. The space- unit i ihen be the analogue of the Mind-Stuff * An idea is merely a combination of inni up which are severally faint copies of more vivid primary feelings. In the present case there is included also an unique ent called belief alluded to in an earlier portion of this paper. FRANKLAND.—On the Doctrine of Mind-Stuff. 218 Our first step will show us how thoroughly interdependent all these con- ceptions are. Matter can only be defined as that which possesses inertia— as that which requires a force proportional to its amount (designated its mass) to effect a given change in its motion (either a change in velocity, or a change in direction, or both) in a given time. Force, again, can only be defined as that which causes a change in the velocity or direction of the motion of matter. It is tacitly assumed, though not often expressed, that the only thing which can cause such a change in velocity or direction is the co-existence of other matter. This amounts to saying that force is a rela- tion of co-existence between different portions of matter. But every relation of co-existence in the material or phenomenal world is a relation of mutual position in space. Hence force is a relation of mutual position between different portions of matter. Motion, in the kinetie, or dynamical, as opposed to the merely kinematical sense, is a change in the position of matter, and is completely determined when the mass of the moving body and the kinematical conditions of the case are given. The notion of energy does not require the introduction of any fundamentally new conception. Hence the phenomenal world is accurately described if we speak of it as a complex of motions, varying in infinite ways as regards mass on the one hand, and velocity and the other kinematical aspects on the other, tending severally to constancy in all these respects, but having a mutual action on one another, determined by their relations of co-existence, and, therefore, under- going perpetual transformations. Now mark the parallelism. The noumenal world, we have seen, may be described as a complex of feeling-elements, or Mind-Stuff units, having, just as motion has, extension in Time, varying in infinite ways as regards volume, intensity, and quality or timbre, having a mutual action on one another, determined by their mutual relations of co-existence, and undergoing perpetual transformations. Is this parallelism something more than a parallelism? Without attempting to justify it in this paper, I would hazard the conjecture that motion is Mind-Stuff, that volume of feeling is mass, and intensity of feeling velocity. Professor Clifford seems to have believed that motion and Mind-Stuff were identical, and indeed to have held the belief in a much more dogmatic form than I should be inclined to do; but the other two identifications are, as far as I am aware, quite new. The degree of light which cerebral physiology may be capable of throwing on the question must be estimated by abler minds than my own: but one implication of my hypothesis has struck me as favourable to it. If matter in motion be Mind-Stuff, it follows that if matter were ever at absolute rest, it would no longer correspond to any noumenal existence. It would become a pure abstraction—one term of a product, the other term of which was zero, Does not this appear in harmony with the hypothesis of Sir Wm. 914 Transactions.— Miscellaneous, Thomson, which makes all the atoms of ordinary matter, and all the par- ticles of which the ether is composed, to consist of a rotational motion in an incompressible frictionless fluid? The stoppage of the vortex-motion would be the obliteration of both atoms and ether—the annihilation of the sensible universe. The perfect fluid at rest would be, on my view, & mere nullity. No noumenal existence would correspond to it, and it would, in fact, merely represent the potentiality of massiveness among feelings. Two other identifications will at once suggest themselves, and may be relied on with greater confidence than any of the three preceding ones: First, the causal relations among elements of feeling will have their counter- parts in the causal relations among motions of matter, i.e., they will have their counterparts in the dynamical laws of the universe. And secondly, the relations of synchronism among elements of feeling will have their counterparts in the relations of synchronism among the motions of matter, i.e., they will have their counterparts in the space-relations of the universe. Certain passages in Herbert Spencer’s ‘‘ Principles of Pyschology” seem to indicate that he entertains a similar belief. And now, one more thing follows. The nexus of causation which obtains among the feeling-elements, or Mind-Stuff units, i.e., among the elements of the noumenal world, must be at least as complex as the corre- sponding nexus which obtains among the motions of matter, i.e., among the elements of the phenomenal world ; and it may be indefinitely more so. For the phenomenal world depends for its existence on the noumenal world, and is in fact only a particular aspect of the latter—that aspect, namely, which the noumenal world presents to its own most complex strands, the percipient beings that grow up in its bosom. Nor can the elements of the phenomenal world derive any complexity from the interaction of the noumenal elements which they represent with the complex structure of the precipients. For it is the especial triumph of the mechanical theory of the universe to have eliminated all these complexities, and referred the affections of the various senses to the same source. Thus the sensations of light and warmth we receive from a fire, are both referred to the radiant energy of the ether which intervenes. between the fire and ourselves. Hence we may be certain that the nexus of causation in the noumenal world is at least as complex as the dynamical nexus of the phenomenal world. But it may be indefinitely more so, There may be many causal relations in the noumenal world which have no types in the phenomenal world, though we may be certain that every dynamical relation in the phenomenal has its anti-type in the noumenal world. The phenomenal world is a projection, so to speak, of the noumenal world on the plane of observation, and much complexity may be lost in the process of projection. In the same way the space-relations of the pheno- Ricumonp.—Reply to Mr. Frankland's paper on ** Mind-Stuf." 215 menal world must be paralleled by a nexus, at least equally complex, of synchronous relations in the noumenal world. But the complexity of the latter may be greater by any amount than that of the former. There may be facts of strueture in the noumenal world which have no representatives, so to speak, in the world of phenomena. It has always seemed to me probable that this was the truth which Spinoza had in his mind when he said that extension was only one out of a perhaps infinite number of attributes possessed by the universal substance. The possibility in question shows that there is nothing in the doctrine of Mind-Stuff per se—Professor Clifford to the contrary notwithstanding—to negative the belief either of the spiritualist or of the theologian. It may or may not be the tendency of physiologieal research to exclude the conceptions with which these two elasses of thinkers are concerned, but this exclusion can certainly not be the result of an acceptance in its most general form of tbe doctrine here described. On the other hand, there is equally little in it to encourage or lend assistance to theological belief. The proposition that there is a dim quasi-sentiency pervading the world, is as far removed as possible from the proposition that there are intelligences unconnected with any brain, and this latter proposition, which is the essence of all spiritualism and theology, can derive no support from the former. In regard to theology, then, the doctrine of Mind-Stuff is neutral. It may rather be described as monistic than as materialistic. It affirms that there is only one Existence—that which Herbert Spencer* speaks of as the **Substance of Mind’’—and that the supposed dualism of matter and spirit is an illusion. Arr. XVIIL.—A Reply to Mr. Frankland's paper on ** The Doctrine of Mind- Stuf.” By C. W. Ricamonp, a Judge of the Supreme Court of New [Read ns the Wellington Philosophical Society, 1st November, 1879.] Mr. FmawkLAND's paper,t as suggesting a Monistic theory of the Universe, is in entire accordance with a prevailing tendency of thought amongst physical philosophers. To close the long contest of Spiritualist with Materialist by cancelling the difference between mind and matter appears to many persons at the present day an enterprise of which the ultimate success is certain. ‘‘ One substance," to quote the words of Professor Bain, ** with - two sets of properties, two sides, the physical and the mental—a double- * To a hint thrown out in the concluding paragrap ph of Mr. Herbert Spencer's chapter on “The Substance of Mind,” I feel that I owe the suggestion of the doctrine. 1 Art. XVIL., ante. 216 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. faced unity—would appear to comply with all the exigencies of the case.” Such thinkers are not seeking to bridge over a supposed chasm between mind and matter, but are denying that there exists any gulf to be crossed. To those, on the other hand, who hold that the antithesis between mind and matter is indestructible, every attempt to identify the spheres of Subject and Object, the External and Internal worlds, must needs appear a futile undertaking. In the view of Dualistic Philosophy, the two spheres are separate as regards, alike, the essential nature of their contents, and the organs and modes of observation whereby they become known to us. Our knowledge of mind is derived from self-consciousness ; our knowledge of matter from perceptive observation of the external world. Whilst the phenomena of matter are referred by us to Time and Space, mental pheno- mena are referred to Time alone; nor can the attempt be made to attribute extension to any purely mental experience without violating the conditions of thought, and lapsing into nonsense. Finally, whilst Mind appears essentially active, and mental experience is the source of our ideas of cause and force, the conception of Matter, of necessity, includes the notion of inertia The Monistic theorists of the present day affect, and no doubt desire, to take a firm and indifferent position on the fulcrum of the balance; but they fail—so at least it seems to their critics—to secure a truly central stand-point, and thus come sliding gently down the beam into the scale of Matter. Berkeley, who is followed by Mr. Frankland through the earlier portion of his paper, whilst he denied to us any knowledge of the external world of matter, affirmed (as a fact known to us more surely and intimately than any other) the existence of Mind. Hume went beyond Berkeley, denying to human knowledge the existence of both entities. He is to be considered as the immediate progenitor of the modern Phenomenal School. The modern Monist may seem to follow Berkeley for a time, but it is soon evident that minds trained in the school of physical research cannot endure a lengthened sojourn in the thin region of Idealism. It may have seemed that they were on the point of merging Matter in Mind. But, habit and training are strong with them. Their pretension to apply to mental pheno- mena the methods of analysis and computation which have served them in the field of Matter, makes it evident that their speculation has resulted— according to their own apprehension of its consequences—not in the resolution of Matter into Mind, but in the merging of Mind in Matter. That this is really Mr. Frankland’s position seems apparent from his very choice of a name for his doctrine. It would be difficult to find a term more thoroughly materialistic in its associations and suggestions than this of ** Mind-Stuff.” If there could be any doubt about the writer's real Ricumonp.—Reply to Mr. Frankland's paper on ** Mind-Stuf." — 917 tendency, it is removed by the proposal to transfer to the description and investigation of mental phenomena such notions as “mass,” “motion,” ** velocity," * momentum." To me, I confess, the proposal appears desti- tute of possible meaning. The notion of extension is obviously involved in every one of these terms. In our **matter-moulded forms of speech" all these ideas are applied metaphorically to spiritual existence, and the things of the pure intellect. But we are conscious of the metaphor. We speak of a massive intellect; but would not gravely affirm that Cuvier's under- standing weighed precisely 64 ozs. Because we talk of ** a rapid intuition," we do not suppose ourselves able to compute, in terms of space as well as time, the speed of those glances of the mind compared with which ** the tempest itself lags behind, and the swift-winged arrows of light." The Mate- rializing School, in treating of the emotions, in which our bodily frame co-operates with our mental constitution, often make use, with marked predilection, of language properly applicable only in the field of Physics,— and we hear continually of ‘‘ waves," **currents," ** vibrations," and the like. But into the proper region of the intellect they do not venture on importing the idea of space. Professor Bain, in his ** Compendium of Mental and Moral Science,” recognizes, in limine, the grand division of human knowledge into the two departments of Matter and Mind,—or, as he prefers to call them, Object and Subject. ‘‘ The department of the Object, or Object-world, is,” he says, ‘‘ exactly circumscribed by one pro- perty, extension. The world of Subject-experience is devoid of this property.” Mr. Frankland adduces the sensation of general weariness as an instance of a mental phenomenon, involving the perception of volume or massive- ness; which includes the idea of extension. But this is a physical sensa- tion, and no instance of a purely mental experience. Our own limbs and body are as much a portion of the external world as any other part of it. Unquestionably the sense of weariness is always, more or less, definite in extent. We may feel our legs tired, or our arms and back, or tired all over. Just in the same way we recognize in sensation, more or less exactly, the extent of a wound or burn. To prove what is wanted, an instance must be found of a purely mental emotion or operation, unconnected with any corporeal feeling. But we are certainly not conscious of the extent in square surface, or cubic space, of our love, hatred, remorse, regret; or of any process or result of the reasoning power. To these, terms of intension, which are dynamical, not material, may be applied; but never terms of © extension. But I pass on to consider the validity of the induction—shall I call it, or the fidelity of the intuition—upon which the new doctrine is to be 21 218 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. founded. It is made upon the collation of the mental phenomena revealed to us by self-consciousness, with those physical changes in the grey nervous matter of the brain, which are, with great probability, assumed to accom- pany the mental phenomena. Let it be supposed that the observer volun- tarily enters upon some train of thought—say, the asses’ bridge in Euclid : it is assumed, and, I concede, with great probability assumed, that this mental process will be exactly represented by concomitant observable physical changes in the nervous substance. One may imagine observations of this kind brought to a high pitch of accuracy, so that any witness of the cerebral phenomena, in the case supposed, should be enabled to infer there- from, with certainty, that the subject was in the act of demonstrating Pro- position No. 5 of the First Book. In this and similar cases Mind takes— or seems to take—the initiative. We should, therefore, expect to find the thought slightly in advance, in point of time, of its material expression ; or, at least, not posterior in point of time. In such a case Mr. Frankland seems to consider himself justified in inferring that the mental operations— the nowmena, as he terms them—‘‘ underlie,” or are even identical with, the physical appearances. These are his words :—‘‘ According to the doctrine of Mind-Stuff, these feelings, or thoughts [in the mind of the person to whom the brain belongs], are the nowmena—the ‘ things-in-themselves "— which underlie the changes in the grey matter of the brain. What appears to an outside observer—or rather, what would appear to him were the skull ‘transparent, as a change in the grey matter of the brain—is, in reality, a feeling or thought in the mind of the person to whom the brain belongs." I find it not easy exactly to define my own position with reference to this speculation. There is much in Mr. Frankland’s essay with which I heartily concur. He appears to me, if I may venture to say so, on the verge of truths which will lead him in a philosophical direction diametrically opposite to that which I understand him to be now pursuing. To such positions as these—that there are realities which underlie appearances— that physical science can never reveal to us these realities—that Psychology alone ean give us philosophical access to them—I assent ex animo. But I find it necessary to question the particular mode in which the writer pro- poses to make the transit from that which appears to that which is. In collating the sequence of ideas in the mind with the concomitant medullary changes, we have, I submit, two parallel series of phenomena between which we are incompetent to conceive of any necessary connection. I presume that this will be at once admitted as true in regard to any two parallel series of physical phenomena. In the field of physical science we know only, that events follow one another in an invariable sequence. We are not ‘entitled to affirm that the antecedent event causes, or produces, the Ricumonp.—Reply to Mr. Frankland’s paper on “ Mind-Stuf" — 919 consequent. Our knowledge is limited to the fact that the phenomena always follow one another in the same order. The phenomenal philosophy disclaims cognition of producing causes. Its so-called causes are merely invariable antecedents destitute of originating power. It is needless to enforce this doctrine upon minds trained in the philosophy of Hume, the two Mills, Auguste Comte, Bain, and Herbert Spencer. A philosophy which limits knowledge to phenomena, cannot consistently admit any other opinion. But I am not employing their doctrine as a mere argumen- tum ad hominem. In the field of Physics, it is, I believe, an absolute truth. In the case we have to consider, one of the two co-ordinated series of events is physical, and the other mental; one is within, the other beyond, the sphere of conseiousness. Does this make it easier to supply a connec- tion between them? It may be argued that the sense of spontaneity, or mental initiative, in the case of a train = thought voluntarily entered upon, entitles us to regard the ‘‘noumena” as underlying the “ phenomena.” That important inferences may be founded upon this sense of a mental initiative I certainly hold, but not the inference which Mr. Frankland suggests to us. His term “underlying” is somewhat equivocal. I do not think it can be understood in any way which will justify his doctrine of ‘“‘Mind-Stuff.” If, by the use of the term “underlying,” it is meant to affirm that we are conscious that the mental processes cause the material— cause i.e, in the sense of producing them—I reply that we have no such - consciousness. The cerebral phenomena are outside the field of conscious- ness; the mental outside the field of bodily vision. How shall we connect experiences which belong to different spheres and are made known by faculties of different order? We can do no more than note down the suecession in time of each series, and mark their correspondence. Our experience, just as in the case of two parallel series of physical events, does not entitle us to affirm more than the invariable concomitance of the corresponding terms in the two series. ‘The fact that the mental phe- nomena occur within the sphere of consciousness is no help to us. We cannot annex to them, stillless identify with them, the series of physical manifestations. The changes in the nervous matter are wholly involuntary, have only recently been ascertained to exist, and remain to this hour un- known to and unsuspected by the mass of mankind. Psychology ignores them; and could we, as suggested, by some mechanical expedient be witnesses of their occurrence in our own frames, we should look upon them as something extraneous to ourselves. Their association with our mental constitution would make no difference in this respect. A similar question has been much debated in a case in which there is greater reason for believing that we are conscious of Mind in action upon 220 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Matter—I mean the case of the voluntary movements of our limbs. I determine to stretch out my arm, and the mental mandate is at once obeyed. But even here the nexus remains to us entirely mysterious. If I order a servant to bring in a scuttle of coals, and he does it, I am, ina sense, the cause of the occurrence. But that is only in a hyper-physical sense. There exists a sufficient physical cause in the contraction of my lent of heat in the combustion of his muscular tissues. The case is exactly the sathe in the instance of the movement of my own limbs at the bidding of my own will. Here also there is a physical antecedent—(a sufficient cause in the sense of the Physicists)—in the expenditure of my own bodily forces. The mental initiative is something outside (so to speak) of the physical series, and not connected with it in any way conceivable by the human intellect. I am here only asserting against Mr. Frankland the doctrine of his own teachers. ** We are," says J. S. Mill, “the causes of the motion of our own limbs in the same sense, and no other than that, in which cold causes ice, or a spark causes an explosion of gunpowder.” By this Mill meant, of course, that our volitions are mere antecedents, not pro- ducing causes of motion.* This is well-beaten ground; and whilst dis- claiming the larger conclusions of the Positivist school, I have always thought it to be in the right upon this particular point. But if we are not justified in regarding a mental act as the vera causa of a voluntary motion, which we have exactly conceived and pre-adjusted, how much less is it allowable to posit a like act as the underlying cause of an unknown and unsuspected change in the cerebral matter. The terms in which Mr. Frankland expresses his doctrine seem to warrant the interpretation I have been putting upon them, namely, that the ‘“‘noumena " in the mental series are causes of the phenomena in the physical series ; and my remarks have applied to the theory understood in this sense. But taking the paper as a whole, it is rather perhaps. its true meaning that ** noumena " and ** phenomena ” (if not identical) are common effects of a single cause, or motions of a single substance ; the supposed cause, a substance, being within the circle of our own consciousness—being, in fact, in each man's case, his own mind— himself. To put it shortly : Thought and Cerebration are to be regarded equally as vibrations of our own self- conscious Substance; or even as one and the same vibration. From this is drawn the further inference, that our own self-conscious substance is a portion of the universal substance. I have no right to press against Mr. Frankland the dicta of masters in the school to which he apparently belongs. As an independent thinker, ee m * See also “ Hume’s Life,” by Huxley ; p. 128, Ricumonp.—Reply to Mr. Frankland's paper on ** Mind-Stuf." 221 he has, of course, a right to discard any part of their doctrine which he conceives to be unsound. But the disciple often finds himself involved, by a partial departure from the established creed of his sect, in unexpected inconsistency. With this preface, I wish to cite a few lines from Professor Bain’s ** Compendium" (Appendix, p. 98). After asserting that, ** Every- thing that we know, or can conceive, may be termed a quality or attribute," he pertinently inquires, what is left to stand for * substance ?'—and answers the query as follows:—'* One way out of the difficulty is to postulate an unknown and unknowable entity, underlying, and in some mysterious way holding together, the various attributes. We are said to be driven by an intuitive and irresistible tendency to make this assumption ; which intuition is held to justify us in such an extreme measure. There is an unknowable substance, ‘‘matter,” the subject of the attribute inertia, and of all the special modes of the different kinds of matter—gold, marble, water, oxygen, and the rest. The same hypothetical unknown entity is expressed in another antithesis—the nowmenon as against the phenomenon; what is, in contrast to what appears." Now, Mr. Frankland seems to think that in the particular class of experiences which he has selected he has evaded the difficulty insisted upon by Bain. Self-consciousness has given him entrance behind the scenes of external Nature which he can now con- template ab intra. He needs not “ to postulate an unknown and unknow- able entity," since he is himself the entity observed. In the co-related phenomena of intellect and brain he seems to recognize himself as self- eonscious substance, simultaneously cognizant of his own being, of the material organism with which it is allied, and of the nexus between the two. This is his key to the enigma of the Kosmos. If I interpret him rightly, he has at all events emerged from Phenomenalism, and may be welcomed over by the Ontologists. Differing, as I do myself, from Professor Bain, I cannot here press his authority upon Mr. Frankland. In regard to the idea of ** substance," Mr. Frankland is clearly at liberty to reject Bain's characteristic attempt to explain away a notion which human thought can- not dispense with, and will ever insist upon supplying. Nor should I quarrel with the application, to mind, of the term “ substance," which is properly a metaphysical notion. The use of the term in theology is familiar. Spinoza regards God as a substance. But every argument which I have adduced to show that the cerebral changes are not effects of mental causes within our consciousness is also valid to prove that they are not accidents or motions of our own mental substance. This supposed substance is, be it remembered, ex hypothesi, a self-conscious entity, and could not be ignorant of its own vibration, or even of its own capability of vibration. Besides which, as I have already urged, the changes, or vibrations, are 992 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. demonstrably the physical eonsequents of physical antecedents. The chain of physical causation is complete in itself. There is yet another defect, as it seems to me, which ought to be pointed out in Mr. Frankland’s theory. It will not fit the case in which cerebral phenomena must be regarded as antecedents of mental; as in the instance of diseases and lesions of the brain, idiocy, and old age. If we suppose that, in the case of the voluntary exercise of intellectual power, mind may detect itself in action upon matter, it is equally true in the cases above suggested that the relation is reversed, and matter is found in action upon The causal nexus must be affirmed in all cases, or rejected in all. In any view of it, I prefer Mr. Frankland’s theory to the naked ma- terialism of Professor Huxley's essay on the “ Physical Basis of Life." It is better, I mean more philosophical, to regard the motions of a man's brain as physical effects of his mind or will, than to reverse the supposed order of causation, and affirm, with Huxley, that mind is * the expression of molecular changes" in the protoplasm of the cerebral cells. I reject both opinions ; but, in so doing, must not be thought to deny the obvious truth that the human mind is made manifest in and by a material organism. It is only through such an organism that we can communicate with each other. We need not seek, in the obscure, involuntary, and to us inexpres- sive, motions of the brain, for proofs of exact correspondence between the mind and the physical organism. In the face, voice, and eye of man, we have the familiar exponents of his intellect and soul. Cerebral anatomy, with its dark lantern, will never add a perceptible ray to the broad day- light of conviction in which we live upon this subject. As regards our undoubted command over these well-known indicia of thought and feeling, it is psychical, not physical; as I have already tried to explain in the case . of voluntary movement of the limbs. Behind (so to speak), and beyond, the innermost nerve-centres, sits the Will, apart from the material appa- ratus; and its mandates are transmitted, we know not how, we know not why, by ways inscrutable to science, never to be laid bare by scalpel or dissecting-needle, to the corporeal agents. It is in vain, as Professor Bain points out, that we ‘‘insist on some kind of local or space-relationship between the extended and unextended." ‘A certain mystery," he admits, ** has attached to the union of mind and body." The mystery, thus spoken of in the past tense, remains a mystery, and I believe will ever do so. Our minds are manifested in material phenomena, but are not themselves the eauses of these phenomena; neither are they the effects; nor can any mental be identified with any physical event. ... But, again, I must not be supposed to deny that mind, or, as I prefer to say, a mind, is the true ultimate cause alike of the human intellect and of THomson—On Pronouns and other Barat Fossil Words. 228 the organism with which it is associated, and as little, that we have, through Psychology, legitimate philosophieal aecess to this fundamental truth. My remarks have been directed against the suggestion, that we our- selves, as self-conscious substances or agents, are the source of the physical phenomena associated with the exercise of our thinking powers; and against the doctrine which it is sought to found upon that suggestion ; and I have purposely avoided, as far as possible, the collateral topies of contro- versy which are opened by the paper under review. Arr. XIX.— Pronouns and other Barat Fossil Words compared with Primeval and Non-Aryan Languages of Hindostan and Borders. By J. TURNBULL Tomson, F.R.G.S., F.R.S.8.A., ete. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 23rd Auyust, 1879.) Tue following comparisons may be taken as supplementary to my last paper.* In that paper I confined myself principally to nouns expressive of roots of the several dialects or languages. In this one I have scrutinized the analogies of the pronouns, and some of the adverbs, also of a few nouns and verbs, which had previously escaped my attention. I must here again acknowledge my great obligations to the Hodgson lists, published by Dr. W. W. Hunter.+ My plan in this enquiry has been to bring the principal east and west Barata tribes in juxtaposition, and then to compare their fossil words with those of the old tribes of Hindostan and borders, as follows :— Ewcrism. | Matacast. Maray. SAMOAN. Maoni. HAWAIIAN. I izaho aku owu au au o kü ahau wau owau PrimevaL AND Non-Aryan Lanevaces or HiwposrAN anp Borpers. Sunwar, go; Thulungya, go; Bahingya, go; Dumi, ang-gnu; Vayu, go; S go; Mithan Naga, kw; Abor Miri, ngo; Sibsagar Miri, ngo; Laos, ee ere before the Wellington Philosophical Society, and printed in Vol. XL, Tune N.Z. Inst., p. 157. t The works from which I have sought assistance in this paper are :—Comparative Dictionary of the Languages of India and High Asia, by W. W. Hunter, B.A., etc.; Marsden’s Malayan Dictionary; Language and Literature of , by Rev. Julius Kessler ; Di of New Zealand Language, by W. Williams, D.C.L.; Samoan Dic- tionary, by Rev. George Pratt; Hawaiian Dictionary, by Lorrin Andrews. 224 . Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Norz.—It will be observed that in the five Barat races, the words standing for the first personal pronoun are radically the same. In Malagasi the first syllable is merely a prefix used before verbs, when emphatic. In the three Polynesian dialects the aspirate is lost, while in Malay the palatal k takes the place of the aspirate h. The radical in all cases is monosyllabic, ho, ku, u, au, au, the prefixes taking the form of iza, a, o a, ah, w, ow. In the Continental races, analogues are found in the Nepal tribes, as go, ang-gnu ; in the East Bengal as ku, ngo; and in the Indo-China as ku. In the Malay language I have given the generie term only, the other words used for the personal pronoun I, such as saya, beta, patek, hamba, literally meaning slave, or goa, being vulgarly used in towns where the Chinese predominate. It may be observed that the Javanese term conforms to the Malay one, io wit, aku. EneuisH. | MaracasI. Manay. Samoan. Maori. HAWAIIAN. Thou hianao angkau, kau |’oe koe o 08 Hinpostan Thochu, kwe; Tibetan, khe; Serpa, khyo; Murmi, ai; Denwar, tu-i; Lepcha, hau; Kocch, tu-i; Annam, maii; Ahom, mo ; Khamti, mau; Keikadi, ninu ; Khond, yinu ; Yerukala, ninu ; Karnataka, ninu. Norr.— The radicals in use are ao, au, u, and oe. The prefix in Malagasi being hian; in Malay, angk, kam; in Samoan, a suppressed aspirate ; in Maori, the palatal k; and in Hawaiian, the vocal sound o. In the Continental races, the analogues of the Malay and Malagasi terms are found in Nepal, khyo ; in N.E. Bengal, hau; in Indo-China, mau; of the second expression in Malay, to wit, mu—in Indo-China, mo; in Central India, ninu, yinu; of the Samoan, Maori, and Hawaiian —in Tibet, kwe, khe ; in Nepal, ai, tui; in Indo-China, maii. The Malays use the word lu when addressing inferiors, and twan when addressing superiors. The Javanese term for thou, viz., kowe, is identical with the Polynesian dialects. ENGLISH. | Maracasi. MALAY. SAMOAN. Maori. HawAIHAN. He izi deia 'o ia ia oia Hinposran, Horpa, ja, jya; Waling, aya; Denwar,i; Kusunda ; Dhimal, w Talain v Mon, nya; Annam, a’i; Ho (Kol), a'i, a'io; Kol (Singhbham), " THomson.—On Pronouns and other Barat Fossil Words. 925 ini; Bhumij, ini; Mundala, inni; Tuluva, aye; Badaga, ava; Irula, ava; Malabar, avan, aval; Sinhalese, ae, eka. The radical is i-i or i-a, the vowels in Malagasi being joined together by the sibilant z, in Malay being prefixed by the dental d, and the Samoan and Hawaiian being prefixed by the vowel o. In the Continental races, the analogues of the Malagasi are found in Nepal, isi; in Indo-China, a'i, ini, inni; of Malay and the Polynesian tribes— in Tibet, ja, jya; in Nepal, aya, i; in Indo-China, nya, a’to; in Southern India, aye, ava, avan, aval, ae, eka, The Javanese term assimilates more to Malay than to Malagaso-Poly- nesian, viz., dewe, yet it has analogies to all. EneuisH. | MALAGASI. Matay. SAMOAN. Maori. HAWAIIAN. | We izahai o i matou matau, tata kakou izakia kita maua, or taua,maua (dual)| kaua, taua (dual) maua (dual?) Hinpostan. Rodong, kai; Nachhereng kai, ka; Yakha, kani, ka; Kulungya, koi, koni ; Thulungya, goi; Bahingya, go-i; Sangpang, kayi; Darhi, hami; Denwar, hami; Kuswar, hami; Kocch, hami; Angami Naga, awe; Khyeng v Shan, kinni ; Chentsu, hame; Tamil (anc.), yam ; Tamil (mod.), nam; Waling, ika ; Siamese, rau; Ahom, rau; Khamti, hau ; Laos, hau. In the first line, the root of the Malagasi, Malay, and Samoan, is evi- dently ai, oi ; and of the Maori and Hawaiian, tau, kau. In the second line, the root of Malagasi and Malay is ia, or kia. In the Samoan, Maori, and Hawaiian, the root is ka, ma, ta, with ua (two) added—i.e., we two. The consonants are transposible in the respective different languages as I have shown in a previous paper. In the Continental races, analogues of the Malagasi, Malay, and Samoan, are found in Nepal, kai, ka, kani, goi, kayi, hami; in N.E. Bengal hami ; in E. Bengal, awe; in Burmah, kinni; in Central India, hame ; and in South India, yam nam. Of the Malay—in E. Nepal, ika; of Maori and Hawaiian—in Indo-China, rau, hau. The Javanese use the singular and plural equally, as aku, which is the Malay for I. . EwceLisH. | Maraacasr. Marar. SAMOAN. Maori. HAWAIIAN. You hianareo angkau, kau, |outou koutou oukou kamu oulua (dual) | korua (dual) olua (dual ? ) 22 226 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Hinpostan. Kiranti, khananin; Rodong, khanai; Rungchenbyng, khananin ; Chhing- tungya, hananina; Nachereng, anai; Waling, hanani; Kulungya, anai; Dungmali, hananin ; Talain v Mon,bintau ; Sgau Karon, thu; Ahom, khau; Gurung, kenmo. The Malagasi analogy with Malaya and Polynesia is very distinct; but allowing for transference of consonants, the analogies between the latter are very close. In the Continental races, analogues of the Malagasi are found in East Nepal, khananin, khanai, hana nina, anai, hanani, hananin; of the Malay and Polynesian dialects—in Indo-China, bintau, thu, khau; and of the Malay kamu—in Nepal, kenmo. The Javanese term is kowe or kaue, which assimilates to the Polynesian dialects. ENGLISH. | Managast. Maray, SAMOAN. Maori. HAWAIIAN. They izi or izareo | dei-orong oi latou ratou, lakou 'oi Jaua (dual) | yaua (dual) jolaua( dual?) Hinpostan. Pahri, usi, hosi; Talain v Mon, nyitau ; Siamese, khau-arai; Khamti, mau-khau. In Malagasi, Malay, and Samoan, ii, ia, ei, oi, are the roots of the words ; the consonants taking their place according to the structure of each language. In Malagasi and Malay, areo and orong are suffixes, probably with the same meaning, which, m Malay, is men—dei-orong (literally, they men). Samoan here appears, as it did in the first person plural, as the junction between the West and Eastern dialects of the great Darat language, by its using both expressions ; latou, in meaning, being a reiteration of 'oi,—that is, they they. In the Continental races, the analogue of Malagasi, Malay, and Samoan ‘ot is found in Nepal, usi, hosi; and of the Samoan latou, Maori and Hawaiian—in Indo-China nyitau, khauarai, maukhau. In Javanese, the expression is dewe, assimilating to deia, the Malay third person singular. ExcrisH. | Maracasr. Maray. SAMOAN. Maori. HAWAIIAN. This iti, itoi ini lenei tenei keia, eia io iko nent ree = ecient! Bran eM Tuowsos.—On Pronouns and other Barat Fossil Words, 297 HINDOSTAN. Gyarung, chidi; Sopka, ani, yeni; Tibetan, di; Pakhya, yehi ; Denwar, i; Vayu, i; Bhutani v Llopa, di, didi; Burman, i, thi; Khyeng v Shan, ini; Kami, hi; Laos, ni; Ho (Kol), ni; Kol (Singhbhum), nea; Santali, nia; Bhumij, ni; Mundala, nia: Naikude, id; Kolami, idda ; Savara, ani; Malayalma, ita; and Pakhya, yo ; Newar, tho; Munipari, yo; Khari Naga, pio; Ahom, iw; Tamil, idv; Karnataka, idu; Kurgi, ivu, idu. The words in the first line are radically the same, the root being ii, ioi, ii, et, eia, the consonants being transposible according to the structure of each language. The words in the second line are merely a variation of the same root io. In the Continental races the analogues of all the tribes are found in Tibet, chidi, ani, yeni, di ; in Nepal, yehi, i; in North-east Bengal, di, didi ; in Indo-China, i, thi, hi, ni; in Central India, ni, nia, id, idda, ani; in Southern India, ita; of Malagasi and Malay (second line)—in Nepal, yo, tho ; in Indo-China iu; and in Southern India, idu, ivu. In Javanese the expression is iki, whose glossarial affinity is thus close. EneuisH. | MALAGASI. Matay. Samoan. Maori. HAWAIIAN., That ini itu lela, lena ia kela tena, tera, taua (dual ?) Hinpostan. Sokpa, theni; Denwar,i; Kusunda, issi, it; Mithan Naga, hiha; Annam, kia; Ho (Kol), en; Kol (Singhbhum), eno; Mundala, ana; Savara, ani ; Yorukala, adu; Tuluva, avu; Kurgi, avu, adu; Toda, adu; Kota, adu; Badaga, adu ; Kurumba, adu ; Irula, adu; Malabar, ah thu, athu. The vocalic basis is zi, iu, ea, ia, ea, in all cases articulated by dento- palatals. In the Continental races the analogues of all the tribes are found in Tibet, theni; in Nepal, i, issi, it; in East Bengal, hiha ; in Indo-China, kia; in Central India, ana, ani, adu; and in Southern India, avu, adu, athu. lt will be seen that Malagasi and Malay have transposed the terms thus: itu, that, in Malay ; itoi, this, in Malagasi; ini, this, in Malay; ini, that, in Malagasi. The Javanese expression is ika, which is radically the same as in other Barat races. ExcLriSH. | Maracasi. Maray. Samoan. Maonr. HAWAIIAN. iza siapa o le oai wai wai, owai 228 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Hinpostan. Gyami, sya; Rodong, sa; Kami, apa-ime; and Kocch, kai; Mithan Naga, oveh ; Tablung Naga, owai; Annam, ai; Laos, khai, phai; Ho(Kol), okoi; Mundala, okowe ; Gadaba, layi. The vocalic root of Malagasi and Malay appears to be ia, and of the Polynesian dialects, the reverse, ai. In the Continental races, the analogues of Malagasi and Malay are found—in Tibet, sya ; Nepal, sa ; N.E. Bengal, apa-ime ; and of the Poly- nesian dialects—in N.E. Bengal, kai; East Bengal, oveh, owai; Indo-China, ai, khai, phai; and of Central India, okoi, okowe, layi. In Javanese, the expression is sapa, which is also sometimes used in Malay. Enes. | Maracasr. Manay. | Samoan. | Maori. | HAWAIIAN. & What inona apa z o le a, sea aha he-aha Hinpostan. Manyak, hano; Karnataka, yenu; Tuluva, jana; Kurgi, yennu; Kurumba, yenu; and Chourasya, ama; Munipuri, pa-may-nay; Kami, Apa-i-me. Malagasi appears in this instance to have, if any, very remote analogy with Malayan and Polynesian; the vocalic root of the latter is aa, a, aa, aa, the consonants appertaining to the respective tribes. In the Continental tribes, the analogues of Malagasi are found in Tibet, hano ; and in Southern India, yenu, jana, yennu, yenu; and of Malayan and Polynesian—in E. Nepal, ama; E. Bengal, pa-may-nay; and Indo-China, apa-ime. In Javanese the term is apa, which is the Malay word. EneuisH. | MALAGASI, | Manay. | SAMOAN. | Maori. | HAWAIIAN. Little | keli sadikit iti-iti | iti li-i, lii-lii Hinpostan Gyarung, kuh-che; Kiranti, chichi; Rodong, pichhe; Rungchenbung, chichi ; Nachhereng, chichha; Waling, achichi, achi; Kulungya, chichha, gichha ; 'Thulungya, kichwe ; Bahingya, kachi ; Khaling, tihiche; Dungmali, achichi; Singpho, katsi; Garo, kitek si; Bodo, tisi, kitisi; Nowgong Naga, ishika ; Shan, ait; Annam, it; Gadaba, khandiki. The vocalic root in all cases is—ei, ii. The Malagasi keli approximates more nearly to the Malay kichi or kichil, which signifies small; yet, as THomson.—On Pronouns and other Barat Fossil Words. 229 dentals and palatals are constantly transposible, the expressions are radically the same. The root of the Malay word sadikit is iki, the prefix sa meaning one. In Samoan and Maori, the palatal k is transposed to the dental ¢; while, in Hawaiian, consistent with the extreme weakness of that dialect, the consonant is eliminated. In the Continental tribes, the analogues are found—in Tibet, kuh-che ; in Nepal, chichi, pichhe, chichi, achichi, achi, chichha, gichha, kichwe, kachi, tihiche, achichi; in N.E. Bengal, tisi, kitisi, kiteksi; in East Bengal, ishika, katst ; in Indo-China, ait, it, The Javanese term is satitik, which assimulates to Malay and Poly- nesian. EneuisH. | Maracast. Maray. | SAMOAN. | Maori. | HawaAAIAN. To-day | anio 'ari-ini ao-lenei jaan he-ao-eia Hinpostan. Brahui, ainu; Limbu, ain; Kiranti, ai; Rodong, ai, ale; Rungchen- bung, ayo, ai; Waling, ailo, ayo; Lohorong, ayu; Dumi, anyol; Khaling, anyalo; Dungmali, a-i; Bodo, dine; Dhimal, nani; Mithan Naga, anyi; Khari Naga, thani; Singpho, daini; Burman, yane; Kami, weini; Kumi, waini; Tounghthu, hanne; Laos, wanni; Keikadi, iuanu. In the Continental tribes the analogues are found in W. Hindostan, ainu, which assimilates to Malagasi; in Nepal, ain, ai, ailo, ayo, ayu, anyol, anyalo, ai; in N.E. Bengal, dine, nani; in E. Bengal, anyi, thani, daini ; in Indo- China, weini, waini, hanne, wanni; in Central India, iuanu. ExwerisH. | MALAGASI. Mara. Samoan. Maori. Hawarran. When | rahoviana | bila pe-a ahea ahea Hinpostan. Khaling, hebelo ; Bodo, mabela ; Garo, biba. The vocalic root in all cases is ia, ea, but the Malagasi seems to be a compound word. In Malay and Samoan the consonants are both labials, which are eliminated in Maori and Hawaiian. In the Continental tribes the analogues are found in Nepal, hebelo; N.E. Bengal, mabela, biba. The expression in Javenese is kapan, which is sometimes used in Malay ; the same is found in the Tharu tribe, Nepal, kabahu; in the Kocch tribe, N.E. Bengal, kab; and in the Tengsa Naga tribe, E. Bengal, kapa; 230 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Eneurss. | Manaaast. MALAY. Samoan. Maori. HAWAIIAN. Ant vitsikia semut loi pokorua he nonanona Hinpostan. 1. Mithan Naga, tiksa ; Namsang Naga, tsip-chak ; Sak, phun-si-gya. 2. Newar, imo; Shan, mot; Siamese, mot; Khambi, mot; Laos, mot. In this word there is no similarity of expression in the several Barat tribes, which is curious. In the Continental tribes, the analogues for Malagasi are found in E. Bengal, tiksa, tsip-chak ; and in Indo-China, phun-si-gya ; for Malay—in Nepal, imo; and in Indo-China, mot. In Javanese, the term is semut, which is the same as in Malay. ExenrsH. | Maracasr. Marax. SAMOAN. Miori. Hawaiian. Man olona orong tagata tangata he kanaka HINDOSTAN. Ho(Kol), horo; Kol (Singhbhum), ho; Bhumij, horro; Mundala, korl; Kuri, koro. There is no analogy between the Polynesian and western tribes of Barat in this word. Hawaiian is radically the same as Samoan and Maori,—the k being transposible into t£, and n to ng. The vocalic root of Malagasi and Malay is oo, r and l being both dento-palatals, and n being transposible into ng. In the Continental tribes, the ogó of Malagasi and Malay are found in Central India, horo, ho, horl, koro. Ewerrm. | Maracasr | Matay. BAMOAN. | Maori. HawaraN. Mountain iode, ie bukit mauga maunga he mauna itra gunong Hinpostan. Newar, gun; Burman, taung : Khyeng v Shan, taung ; Pwokaren, kulaung ; Taungh-thu, koung. The bohitra of Malagasi, and bukit of the Malay, in their respective phonologies, are the same word. The Polynesian expressions stand alone. - THomson.—On Pronouns and other Barat Fossil Words. 231 In the Continental tribes, the analogue of gunong in the Malay language is found in Nepal, gun; of the Polynesian dialects—in Indo-China, taung, kulaung, koung. : The Javanese term is gunong, as in Malay. Eve OPE a ae Enauisu. | Maracasr. Matay. SAMOAN. | Maori. HAWAIIAN. Oil solikia minia u-u hinu aila Hinpostay. i Madi, ni, nai, niyu; Keikadi, yana ; Tamil, neyam. In this case there is no analogy between the several Barat dialects. The Samoan wu is radically the Malay susu, i.e., milk. In the Continental tribes the analogues for Malay are found in Central India, ni, nai, niyu, yana, neyam. In Javanese the term is lenga. Eneuiso. | Maracastr. Marax. | SAMOAN. Maori. | HAWAIIAN. Salt fanasina masin masima mataitai he paakai garam Hinpostan. Sunwar, yusi; Angami Naga, matse ; Tengsa Naga, machi ; Savara, basi ; and Rodong, rum; Nachhereng, ram ; Waling, yum ; Takha, yum ; Kulungya, gum; Lohorong, yum ; Lambichhong, yum ; Balali, yun ; Sangpang, rum ; Dumi, ram ; Khaling, ra ; Dungmali, yum; Munipuri, thum; Mithan Naga, hum; Tablung Naga, hum; Namsang Naga, sum; Singpho, jum ; Kuri, bulum. All the Barat tribes have one vocalic root, viz., ai in Malagasi; Malay and Samoan, asi; and in Maori and Hawaiian, ai; these with prefix and suffix variations. The second term, garam, in Malay, is purely Continental. In the Continental tribes, the analogues for all the dialects are found in Nepal, yusi; in E. Bengal, matse, machi; and in Central India, basi. For the Malay word, garam, we find in Nepal, rum, ram, yum, gum; in E. Bengal, thum, hum, jum; and in Central India, bulum. The Javanese term is wyah, which has no prototype. EneuisH. | Maraaasr. Marar. SAMOAN. Maori. HAWAIIAN., Skin hoditra kulit pu-u hiako . he alu alu iliola kiri hi ili 232 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Hinpostan. Rodong, hulipa. Malagasi and Malay, under their respective phonologies, agree; but disagree with Polynesia. In the Continental tribes, the only analogue is found in Nepal, and that is doubtful. In Javanese, the term is the same as in Malay, viz., kulit. wer CHAP CiU qtiod eu ER ENGuisH. | Maracasr. Marax. SAMOAN. Maori. HAWAIIAN. Crooked — bengko fa-'api-'o kopikopiko e-pio cosa c mers BREE UN SUUS quoe DE. 2 Hinpostan. Sunwar, bango ; Pakhya, banggo ; Newar, beko ; Rodong, banggo ; Nach- hereng, banggo ; Waling, banggo ; Denwar, banko ; Kuswar, bango ; Uraon, bengko ; Chentsu, banko. There is no analogy between Malay and Polynesian. In the Continental tribes, for the Malay, analogues are found in Nepal, bango, banggo, beko, banko; in Central India, bengko, banko. The Javanese assimilates to Malay, viz.. bengkong. Exess. | Maracasi. Maray. SAMOAN. Maori. HAWAIIAN. Fat matavi gammo ga ’o ngako momona limma mea lololo matu i ————— Hinpostan. 1st.—Kocch, mota ; Uraon, mota ; Mundala, mota ; 2nd.—Serpa, gyamo ; Bhutani v Llopa, gyamo ; 3rd.—Toungh-thu, pay; Shan, payi; Ahom, pi; amti, pi; Laos, pi, tui. There is no analogy between Malagasi and Malay; strong analogy between Malay, Samoan, and Maori; but none with Hawaiian. In the Continental tribes, the analogues for Malagasi are found in N.E. Bengal, mota; and in Central India, mota; for Malay, Samoan, and. Maori —in Nepal, yyamo; and in Bhutan, jyamo; again for Hawaiian—in Indo- China, pay, payi, pi, and tui. In Javanese, the term is lemu, which assimilates to the Malay second term, limma. ExcLrsH. | Maracasr. | Maray. Samoan. Maori. | Hawaman. | Eat | mihinana | makan 'ai kai e ai | LI Tuousox.—On Pronouns and other Barat Fossil Words. 288 Hinpostan, Gyami, khye ; Lohorong, chae ; Dungmali, choye ; Denwar, khaik ; Kuswar, khaik ; Tharu, khai; Shan, kyen; Siamese, kenn. The root of allis a. In Malagasi, with a prefix of mihin and suffix of na; in Malay, of mak and n. In the Polynesian dialects the root is inflected. In the Continental tribes, the analogues are found in Tibet, khye; in Nepal, chae, choye, khaik, khai; and in Indo-China, kyen, kenn, which latter assimilates to Malay. In Javanese, the term is mangan, which assimilates to Malay. As this will conclude the series of papers that I have written on the subject, commencing with an enquiry as to ‘‘ The Whence of the Maori," but which has led me over extensive ground,* I shall now recapitulate some of the main points touched on. This, or kindred studies, have arrested the attention of many previous writers on the mythology, traditions, chaunts, and legends of the Maori. I have read with interest the works and papers of Sir George Grey, Lieutenant Shortland, Mr. Colenso, and Dr. Arthur S. Thomson; but those authors who had dealt with the question to which my efforts have been more closely allied were especially Mr. James Richardson Logan and - John Crawfurd, both of Singapore. The works of Humboldt, Bopp, and Hale, I have not been able to obtain. These enquirers had their attention engaged with kindred ethnological and philological fields, and in regard to that to which I have confined myself their notices have been incidental rather than comprehensive. With such able ethnologists preceding me, it must be confessed that many facts were anticipated; yet my labours, I submit, need not be con- sidered to be entirely thrown away, for—with the light that has been shed on the subject by the untiring labours of Hodgson, Hunter, Campbell, Koelle, Bleeck, Clark, etc., etc., whose dictionaries and vocabularies have only been recently published—I have had data brought to hand which the writers of thirty years ago could not obtain. These I have freely searched, using, as my clue, the Malayan tongue, with whose language and literature, as I have already stated, I can claim acquaintance, In my first paper, which was ethnological, I was carried, in my search for the “ Whence of the Maori,” beyond Malaya (the popularly-accepted * “ Whence of the Maori” (Ethnological), Trans., N.Z. Inst., Vol. IV., p. 1. . (Barata Do. : Numerals) do. Vol. V., p. 131. Do. do. (Philological) do. Vol. VL, App. G or Barata Fossil Words” do. Vol. XL, p. 157. 234 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. fountain of the Polynesian race), the evidence leading to the following con- clusions :—1st. That Hindostan, as well as the Indian Archipelago, at one time contained a negro population. 2nd. That waves of migration issued from the South Peninsula, or Barata, east and west. 8rd. That no western emigration ever proceeded out of Tamasak, or the south part of the penin- sula of Malacca or Sumatra, so as to affect Madagascar. 4th. That the progress of the Barata is traceable eastward by language to the Moluccas, of which Ternati is the principal settlement. 5th. That the race was modified in colour and physiognomy by the incursions of the Mangians and Annamese, but not in language. 6th. With the Moluccas as a basis, a stream of the mixed race flowed eastward from island to island over Poly- nesia, one branch finding its way to New Zealand vid Tongataboo. "7th. That Barata, or South India, was therefore the whence of the Maori. My second paper was on Barata numerals, in which, of many tribes, I compared the numerals up to ten, scattered between Madagascar and Easter Island. The interesting fact which this enquiry divulged was to this effect: that within the regions occupied by the Barata race—of which the Maori is a portion—the more remote or primitive the tribes the greater was the analogy of dialect. "Thus a remote tribe, the Lampong, occupying a portion of the interior of Sumatra, have their ten numerals identical with Maori; Madagascar has nine identical; so also have Tagala, Papango, and Mindanao, in the Philippines, and so forth ; while the more accessible Malay has only five identical, Acheen only six, ete. Of this subject I then remarked, that I hoped I had satisfactorily shown that the first ten numerals (in as far as their evidence was valuable) tend to prove the intimate connection that subsisted between an archaic race that spread over nearly two-thirds of the circumference of the globe, and in which expansion the Malay had no connection,* but the ethnological phenomenon was due solely to the illustrious Barata. My next paper was philological, in which I scrutinized the structure of the languages of several of the leading races, glossarially, idiomatically, and phonetically—comparing first, Maori with Tongan; second, Maori with the many dialects of the Indian Archipelago ; third, Malagasi with Malay ; fourth, Maori with Malay; and lastly, the Murihiku dialect, New Zealand, with races in the Indian Archipelago. The general conclusion arrived at from the evidence brought out was, that had Madagascar not existed, or had it not been populated by its present race, our search for the whence of the Maori as we proceeded westward, might have stopped at the Silong tribe of Mergui, on the eastern shores of the Bay of Bengal; but the above circumstances we have set forth, force us * Excepting as a tribe or offshoot. Txomson.—On Pronouns and other Barat Fossil Words. 235 to proceed across the bay and point out, as I did in my former paper, that peninsula—fecund of people—viz., South Hindostan, alone commanding all possible eastern or western migrations, as the only possible whence of the aori. i Here then ended my enquiries for the time, the conclusion was one decided by physieal geography, supplemented only by ethnological and philological data; but I often asked myself: What of Hindostan itself? What of the Land of Barat, as the Malays term it? Are there no remnants of that archaic language in it, so as to corroborate this fine theory of the " whence of the Maori" being there? It occurred to me, that if I could bring the evidence of languages contained in fossil words, this would be satis- factory, in fact it would make my theory incontrovertible. I had no opportunity to effect this desirable end till I went home lately on leave of absence, during whieh time, while in London, I gathered the material from various sources as stated in my last paper. From this material, which is found in the several vocabularies of the various primitive tribes that yet inhabit Hindostan, there were abundant proofs of intimate connection with the languages of Malaya, Polynesia, Madagascar, and even eastern Africa, in other words, with the wide-spread Barata race. It was then remarked by me that Hindostan is now overrun by two distinct sections of the human race, viz., Indo-Germanie, or Aryan and Turanian, or, in other words, the one Caucasian, the other Turanian ; the one occupying the western and northern regions, the other the southern and eastern. And,in overrunning Hindostan, have they extirpated the primitive races? Not entirely ; many of these remain, much modified, it is true, in colour and physiognomy, but little inlanguage. The roots of a language die only with a tribe's extirpation. Hence it is not in the languages of the intruding sec- tions that we have found the Barata fossil words, but for the most part in the various small tribes yet preserved in the obscure portions of their terri- tory, difficult of access, such as under the Himalaya, Jynteah, and Nilgherry mountains. In these, the undeleted glossarial remains of what had been the language of a numerous people once inhabiting the fertile plains, we have witnesses to facts and conditions of nations long since past, and pre- ceding historie record. : As to this, my last paper, I may state that so far as it goes it sub- stantiates the conclusions of those preceding ; there being 261 analogies in Hindostan of the 22 words selected from five Malagas-Malayo-Polynesian dialects. Further, in comparing these, as I have done, with the Aryan, Mongolian, or Semitic, or other Asiatic races—ancient or modern—no analogy can be detected. In this paper, giving 22, and my last, 43, making 65 primary words (a large portion in an aboriginal language), of which there were 261 and 235 236 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. analogies, respectively, in the tribal tongues of Hindostan,—total, 496— all the proofs that glossarial connection can give, are adduced. The expressions denoting this glossarial connection I have termed “ word- fossils,” for they indicate a race with as unerring an indication as the Graptolite, the Holyptichius, or the Stigmaria, point out those separate geological systems displayed in the Silurian, the Old Red Sandstone, and the Carboniferous, respectively, wherever spread on the face of the globe. In these papers I have given more attention to the glossarial branch than to the ideological or phonetic, simply because I have found it to be the most unchanging, and, therefore, the best indicator of race affinity. The Malay and Polynesian languages are compounding in their con- struction ; the Malagasi is inflecting ; yet, this peculiarity connects it with the Dravidic,—i.e., dialects of South Hindostan. All have re-duplication in the construction of many words; and that most attenuated of the dialects, viz., Hawaiian, has triplication, and even quadruplication—such as, lelele, to leap; lelelele, to run off. The Poly- nesian dialects have dualism in their pronouns; a fact which I have not discovered in Malagasi or Malay. The roots of the most simple primary words are vowels, the conso- nants being merely additions or acceptations, according to the genius of each dialect. That the consonants are transposible, as between tribe and tribe, we have seen many indications; and that they are even ever- changing in single tribes, we have the evidence of the Rev. S. J. Whitmee. He says,* the consonant k is found only in one word in Samoa (to wit,— in puke), adding, that to a person now for the first time visiting Samoa this would appear to be incorrect. He would hear k used by most of the natives in their ordinary eonversation in place of t; but this is a recent change. In 1863, was used only in the island Tutuila and in the eastern portion of Upolu; now, it is used all over the group. It is difficult to say how this change was commenced, but its spread has been noted, and every attempt has been made to arrest it, but without effect. Many of the natives are exceedingly careless and incorrect in the pronunciation of consonants, and even exchange or transpose them without confusion and almost unnoticed by their hearers,—as, manu for namu, & scent; lagogu for lagonu, to understand, etc. Besides scrutinizing beyond Hindostan the dictionaries of the various races of Asia, Europe, and Africa, I have also carefully gone over numerous vocabularies of the aboriginal tribes in North and South America, and here also I have failed to detect the semblance of glossarial analogy. All philo- logical evidence then turns to Hindostan, the Land of Barat, as the original * Samoan Grammar, Tuomson.—On Moriori Connection. 237 seat of the Maori race. And here I may express a thought which has occurred to me, in conclusion,—that the native chiefs of New Zealand, while, by the treaty of Waitangi, they ceded and yielded up the sovereignty of their territories to the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland only forty-four years ago, now also, in her capacity as Empress of India, is she the Sovereign of their race by archaic connection from time immemorial, far preceding the age of history or of letters. Art. XX.—Moriori Connection. By J. TunwsuLL Tuomson, F.R.G.S., F.R.S.8.A., etc. (Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 23rd August, 1879.] Tur basis of this paper rests on a Moriori vocabulary, prepared by S. Deighton, Esq., R.M., Chatham Islands, furnished to the Native Depart- ment, Wellington, at the instance of Government, and it forms a proper sequel to the several papers I have written on the ** Whence of the Maori," ` etc. For distant readers it is necessary that I should explain that the Moriori iribe is by tradition said to have occupied the New Zealand islands before the coming of the Maori. A small remnant now only exists in the isolated and remote Chatham Islands, situated some 200 miles to the east of the main group; and to record what yet exists of their language has for some years been the desire of the authorities of the department in charge of native affairs. By the courtesy of Mr. T. W. Lewis, secretary to the Native Department, I have been entrusted with the analysis of a copy of the above-mentioned vocabulary with the view of ascertaining its philologieal connection with kindred races. The vocabulary consists of 168 words, principally radical or primary. But, for the purposes of a comparative vocabulary*, the words are reduced to 155 in number, and of these 115 are pure Maori; hence the Moriori can only be said to be a dialect of this Polynesian race which now inhabits New Zealand—it is distinctly not a separate language. Under these circum- stances, it would be tedious and out of place to transcribe the whole of Mr. Deighton’s valuable vocabulary. I have therefore confined myself to making a comparison of those Moriori words which are not pure Maori, showing where they are to be found amongst other Malagas-Malayo- — Polynesian, or Barat races. * Some of the words are phrases, and for some I have not been able to find the Maori equivalent. : $ 238 Transactions. —M iscellaneous. Of course it must be understood, that the investigation is circumscribed by the limited number of dictionaries or vocabularies in my possession ; thus, though many of the words are not found in them, yet it is not to be taken for granted that they will not be dug out from the strata of the many yet unknown languages spoken between Madagascar and Polynesia; all experience showing that radical words are never wholly lost, for if one branch of a race accepts new words, another branch yet retains them. Coming to remarks on the comparison, it will be seen that there are thirty-nine out of the one hundred and fifty-five words which are not Maori, or else, if Maori, are variations of the language sufficient to claim distinctive notice. Of the first word, i.e., the personal pronoun I, the Moriori analogue is found in three of the principle groups in Polynesia, and also in fourteen of the tribes of Non-Aryan Hindostan. But the analysis of this portion of the subject will be best made, by such readers as are interested, for them- selves. I shall therefore confine myself to generally stating, that there are fifteen Moriori words out of the thirty-nine which are not reproduced in the limited list of works which I possess. Five words will be seen to belong to the Fijian Group, four to the Samoan, twelve to the Hawaiian, two to the Murihiku dialect of New Zealand, eleven to the Malay, two the Malagasi, seven to the Non-Aryan tribes of Hindostan, but, stating it differently, these seven words are found seventy- seven times in these Barat tribes. The inferences to be drawn, so far as inferences can be made from such limited data, are consistent with the principle elucidated in the previous papers, viz.: that the furthest and earliest waves of migration accord most in the roots of their languages with the centre from which they migrated. Thus as we know the Moriori to have preceded the Maori, we accept him to be one of these earliest waves. The analogy between it and the Hawaiian (an acknowledged most primitive tribe) is, therefore, striking; but the more so is this the case when we sean the root-words of the archaie foeus of the race in Ancient or Non-Aryan India. The deductions therefore accord with those of preceding papers. Tuomson.—On Moriori Connection. 289 ENGLISH. Maori. Monronr. OTHER LANGUAGES. T .. | au; ahau ko au koi Fijian ; o-au, Samoan; owau, Hawaiian, And non-Aryan Hindos- tan—go, Sunwar; go, Th ngya; go, ngya; ku, Laos; go, Vaya; go, Lepcha, Sikkim ; ka, Dhimal ; ku, Mi- than Naga ; ngo, Abor Miri, and c : sagar Miri ; kau, Ahom, and Kham Who .. | wai ko wai o-cei, Fijian; o-ai, Samoan; owai, Ha- waiian. And no Hy rene Hindostan— he: Bhutani ag Lhopa; kai, Kocch; owai, Tablun Nga: khai, Laos ; (eme Ho o(Kol) okoe, Santali ; okowe, To-day .. | aianei a ta ranei hari ini, Malay; anio hiani, Malagasi. And non-Aryan Hindostan an—ai, Kiranti, Rodong, Rungchenbung, and Dungmali; nani, al; anyi, Mithan Naga; daini, Singpho; yane, Burman; wei ni, ami; wai ni, Kumi; hanne, Toungh- thu; wanni, Laos. Bone II imi Eye kanohi konehi Non- Hindostan— Khan, ahui ; kan, Thochu ; khan, Uraon; kane, Raj- Gondi; kanak, Rutluk ; kannuka, Khond; kan, Tamil; kanna, y kannu, Telugu; nn rnat ; kann, Tuluva, Kurgi, and Toda; konn, Toduva; kannu Kota, Badaga, ba, d Malabar. Head .. | upoko uraki Non-Aryan Hindostan—mura, Kocch. House .. | whare wheau Mosquito waeroa koringa Non-Aryan dostan—ninga, Kolami; ningal, Naikade, kirigi, Gadaba. Mountain maunga makutere Slave .. | herehere mokai; tutua Stone .. | kohatu pohatu pokahu, Hawaiian; batu, Malay; vato, Malagasi. Non-Aryan Hindostan—ha- thou, Gyami. Bad .. | kino etae wahike tei (filth), Malay. kura ura he ula ula, Hawaiian. Manna E Hin- cm dostan—ulan, Sokpa ; Kiranti; harra, Lohorong ; y Ho(Kel); arah, Santali; err a, Telugu Island .. | motu whatu Butterfly .. | pepepe purehurehu - he pule lehua, Hawaiian. Face .. | mata iahu 240 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. ENGLISH. OTHER LANGUAGES. Maori, Moriori. Feather .. | hou; raukura | uru manu Ma» uru, Murihiku, New Zealand; he hulu o ka manu, Hawaiian; hulu , Malay; esci nay Malagasi Thumb... | koromatua (| to nui ka lima nui, Hawaiian. Root +» | akaaka paki aka yu. ange New i [M : a, Sam ; ke aa, Haw > Malay. Dung .. | wai-rakau tutae de, Fijian ; tae, Samoan ; tei, Malay. Grass +» | otaota rau daun (leaves), Malay. Know .. | matau kitee kila, Fijian ; e ike, Hawaiian; kinal, Malay. Life a oranga ti oranga olaga, Samoan; ke ola ana, Hawaiian; orang idup, Malay. Heart ++ | ngakau manawe neti | ati, Malay. Passing . wani, ete. ii ahenga Rotten . pirau pere Sing -« | waiata kara mia Truth pono tika Worm toke tunga Waves . piupiu rehu moana North .. | nota? whakuru he kukulu akau, Hawaiian. South .. | tonga uru he kukulu hema, Hawaiian. East s» l|rawhhü ^ maranga West -. | hauauru raki ra, Fijian. Hill .. | puke takupu he mauna uuku, Hawaiian. Naked . kau ko re kirianake Thatch .. | tapatu tua rau a Sg oa ; daun tua (old leaves), Abundant.. | nui ku ai Arm es ringaringa ririma lima, Hawaiian. II.—ZOOLOGY. Art. XXI. i Whale. By Prof. Junius von inar PhD, FRB, Director of the Canterbury Museum. Plate VIII. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 26th November, 1879.) Iw a former volume of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,* I offered a description of the skeleton of this interesting Southern Ziphioid Whale. I then stated on the authority of the late Mr. F. Fuller, taxider- mist of the Canterbury Museum, who went to secure the skeleton of that specimen, stranded in Lyttelton Harbour, some details about the character- istic form and colour of the skin of the animal in question. When my informant arrived where the fishermen were at work, he found that the blubber had nearly all been taken off, so that he could only partially obtain the required measurements. From the observations I am about to offer to the Society, on two more specimens stranded since then on our sea-beach, it will be seen that some of the statements were far from being correct. fact, the animal was so much cut about that its lower part was taken for the upper, and vice versá, and consequently no dorsal fin could be found where it was looked for. The first of the specimens under review was stranded on Sunday, the 17th of November, 1878, near New Brighton. There were numerous visitors at the time who observed another whale (according to other lookers-on, two whales) in the offing, by which the animal was driven into the surf, where soon it became helpless. Gradually it was drifted upon the low sandy beach, where it died only after a long struggle. Having received prompt information, I arrived early next morn- ing on the scene, and found the animal quite intact, so that I could not only take the necessary measurements, but also have a careful sketch prepared, which, as the sequel will show, is of importance, in offering us some curious information as to the habits of this species of Ziphioids. Colour: Head, neck, and anterior portion of the back, as far as the dorsal fin, white ; the rest of the body black; a white narrow line running along the edge of the dorsal fin, which is otherwise black. The line of division between the two colours is everywhere well marked, except upon * Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. IX., p. 430. 24 242 Transactions.— Zoology. the cheeks, where blackish blotches advance some distance towards the nose. The cylindrical form of the animal for its length is rather slender, its height at the occiput being only 2 feet 3 inches, and at about nine feet from the tip of the lower jaw 8 feet 3 inches, after which it tapers gradually to the tail. The animal proved to be a young female, The two teeth at the termination of the lower jaw stood half an inch above the gums, having a diameter of one inch where they rose above the latter. They are conical, and have a sharp apex, and are not covered any- where with enamel, not even on the tip. The dentine shows a number of horizontal lines one above the other, running round the tooth. They are therefore quite different from the teeth of the two specimens described in Vol. IX. (Transactions of the New Zealand Institute), which were found to be covered with a rough cement. They are also different from those of another specimen, of which I shall give some details further on. A single fold begins below the throat, 1 foot 1 inch from the top of the lower jaw. After rising rapidly for four inches, it continues for seven inches more at a smaller angle, ceasing where the black colour of the throat begins. This fold is separated into two portions by a ridge of the breadth of half an inch below the centre of the throat. Lips flesh-coloured ; roof of mouth slaty-black ; no signs of teeth along the jaws ; there is, however, a hardened ridge along both sides of the palate. The extremity of the lower jaw projects about two inches beyond the upper. The head rises steeply above the upper lip to the forehead. The blow-hole is situated.on the vertex of the head just above the eye, Both the form and the size of the dorsal fin and of the tail-lobes, show that this species must be a remarkably swift swimmer. MEASUREMENTS. FT. IN. Total length : ee 19 6 Greatest circumference "e em sc" g From point of lower jaw to the beginning of the pectoral fin 4 9 From fork of tail to termination of faleate dorsal fin 5 Hw Length of the opening of the mouth 1-8 From point of lower jaw to eye . = $503 68 From point of lower jaw to beginning of fold below throat ti Diameter of blow-hole concave towards head /. a 0 8 From fork of tail to vent Ses 5 4 From fork of tail to pudendum 6 6 Breadth of caudal fin .. * 8 1 Base of dorsal fin = w z ka dr Height of dorsal fin .. - ^ & 08 Breadth of pectoral fin ,. . x : ¢ 1 Length of pectoral fin .. P» TA wv 2 B Eye, horizontal diameter ei S =. DA Eye, vertieal diameter .. e 0 1 Haasr.— Notes on Ziphius (Epiodon)—Goose-beaked Whale. 248 Before giving a description of the external appearance of the specimen under review, I wish to allude to another female, 21 feet 6 inches long, of the same species, stranded on May 15th, 1879, on the sea-beach near Kaiapoi, and of which the skeleton was also secured. This was, doubtless, a full-grown, aged animal, the terminal epiphyses being so well anchylosed to the body of the vertebre that even the line of junction could be scarcely distinguished, while in the New Brighton speci- men these discs were still unanchylosed, and detached themselves readily during maceration. In form of the body, and colouration, this animal resembled in every respect the New Brighton specimen. However, the two teeth existing at the tip of the lower jaw could not be felt when passing the fingers over the gums, and were only disclosed when making incisions. The teeth are the smallest of all those known to me, being 1:98 and 2inches long, and only :46 of an inch broad. The left tooth weighs 66 and the right 62 grains. The flattened root is square, and somewhat con- stricted a quarter of an inch above the base, after which the tooth expands, being broadest about the middle. It then contracts rapidly, running out to a sharp point. This is thus confirmatory evidence that the teeth, with age, are absorbed, and disappear gradually below the gums ; although it is possible that even below the gums they may still be of some use to the animal. It is a peculiar character of the small teeth of the Kaiapoi specimen that they should be so very thin, and terminate in a sharp point ; and that the latter should be covered with real enamel, different from any oberved upon the dentine in any other teeth of the same species. Returning to the first-mentioned specimen from the New Brighton beach, of which the annexed sketch (Pl. VIII.) gives a faithful representation, it must strike us with astonishment to see the skin of this animal, a female, so fearfully lacerated. The late taxidermist of the Museum, when giving me some notes of the external appearance of what remained of the specimen stranded in Lyttelton Harbour in July, 1872, informed me that the upper portion was marked by numerous oval spots, 2-3 inches across, like the skin of the leopard; this, as 1 observed already, was the lower portion. Moreover, he thought that the animal must have had fearful struggles amongst the rocks, the skin appearing torn in all directions. These pecu- liar oval spots were visible at the first glance on the skin of the New Brighton specimen; but when examining them more closely it at once became clear that they were not natural, but were the scars of injuries the animal had received during life-time at various periods. At the same time, the animal being also covered with a number of seamed scars, running in all directions, their form and regularity proved 244 Transactions.— Zoology. also that they could not have been caused by the animal being thrown amongst the rocks; but must have been inflicted by some other animal. Examining the oval spots, I found that, although they varied from a length of 2 inches, to that of 8 inches, and from a breadth of 1 inch, to that of 2 inches, they had invariably the same character, viz.: that of an oval sear of a dirty whitish colour, both in the white and the black colouration of the skin, with two well-marked points in the centre, always about 11-13 inches apart. These two dots had evidently been the wounds inflicted, round which the scar had been formed. In some instances these points were quite healed over, so as to show that the injury had been done long ago; in others there were two fresh sores, as if the animal had been struck only a few hours before its death. Although occurring all over the body, with the exception of the back, these oval scars were most frequent below the belly, and principally round the pudendum, where they were often so close together that the scars not only ran into each other, but evidently covered each other, so as to show that the same spot had been struck re- peatedly. The seamed scars, on the other hand, occurred more on both sides of the animal. Only a few crossed the back or reached to the belly. With a few exceptions these seamed scars were always in pairs, 14-1} inches apart, and each about i inch broad. Some of them were running for a considerable distance, 7-8 feet, others only for a space of a few inches. That there had been considerable struggle became evident from the direction these seamed scars had taken, some forming, as at a, regular hooks. Some of these wounds were evidently of long standing, being well healed, others had only been inflicted a very short time before the stranding of the animal, as they were quite fresh and deep, and sometimes have a breadth of 3 of an inch. From the character of these wounds, it appears certain that they could have only been made by an animal or animals of the same species with the two teeth of the lower jaw, the distance of their apices being 11-14 inches from each other, and thus corresponding with both the oval and seamed scars. The aged female from the Kaiapoi beach, of which I gave some particulars on the preceding pages, was scarred and seamed in exactly the same manner. Itis thus evident that the females are subject to attacks either from the males during rutting time, or that they fight amongst themselves. In the latter case, which, however, appears to me to be rather improbable, the teeth of the figured specimen must have been of considerable use to the animal, and it is then difficult to understand how the full-grown or aged animals, when their teeth disappear below the gums, can successfully resist the attacks of the younger members of the same species, unless their greater bulk, or probably greater speed, make up for this disadvantage. Of the males of Ziphius nove-zealandie we know nothing at present, but there . TRANS NZ. INSTITUTE VOL XILPT VITL. 1 2 3 4 5 Scale of eed, e ZIPHIUS (ZZ/TZIW. ) NOVA. ZEALANDIÆ, Von Haast Von Haasi, dei, JB lith Haasr— Notes on Ziphius (Epiodon)—Goose-beaked Whale. 245 is no doubt in my mind that with them the teeth in front of the lower jaw are both permanent and of larger size than those of the females, just in the same manner as they exist in other Ziphioid genera, Fortunately, how- ever, there is some evidence at hand strengthening such an hypothesis. Dr. Hector, in his account of the skull of Epiodon chathamiensis,* obtained in the Chatham Islands, describes the teeth of this species, as follows:—'*Thelowerjaw * * terminates in two, short, stout, slightly compressed teeth, 2 inches long, and 4 inches in circumference, implanted in shallow sockets. The teeth have slight, irregular strie, and are worn down into two lateral facets, divided by an acute ridge. The position of the teeth, when the jaws are closed, is 2 inches beyond the upper mandible, and unless they are applied against callosities on the upper lip, it is difficult to conceive how they are worn down to this acute form. Weight of teeth 817 and 836 grains." ** Two teeth, of similar form, taken from the jaw of a whale cast up on the Manawatu beach, have their facets forming an obtuse pyramidical tip.’ Of this last pair of teeth no weight is given, but it is evident, from the drawing, that they must be as heavy as the former. The teeth of the females, examined by me, range from 62 to 200 grains. There is no doubt that the form and chief characteristic features of the skull from the Chatham Islands, described as Epiodon chathamiensis, and those of the two female whales secured by me, are almost identical, if we except the teeth, which in the former are at least four times as heavy as in the latter. In my paper on Ziphius nove-zealandia, in Vol. IX., of the Transactions of the New Zea- . land Institute, I pointed out already that the skull of this Chatham Island whale might have belonged to the male of Epiodon nove-zealandia, thus accounting for the difference. After having seen the two female animals stranded on our beach, scarred in such a remarkable manner, I am more than ever inclined to this opinion. If the three specimens alluded to had been males, it would be easy enough to understand that the wounds had been inflicted during their fights in rutting time, or for supremacy, as this is the case with most of the terrestrial animals. However, the fact that the wounds inflicted in striking against the animal, by which the oval scars were produced, are mostly in close proximity to the pudendum, suggests forcibly that they have been inflicted by male animals. In respect to the external appearance of the different species of other Ziphioid genera, such as Mesoplodon, Berardius, and Oulodon, of which several specimens, both male and female, have been examined by me, I may state that none of them had the least scar or wound upon them. Of course, this may be accounted for by the fact, that the teeth of most of these genera are situated so far backwards that they could scarcely be nsed * Trans. N.Z, Inst,, Vol. V., p. 165, 246 ; ; Transactions.— Zoology. for the same mode of attack. Dr. Hector* has given an account of the capture of an adult male of Berardius arnuxii in the entrance of Wellington Harbour, on January 12th, 1877, from which it appears that ‘the teeth did not penetrate the gums, nor could their position be discovered till deep incisions were made.” This leads me to conclude that the male of this species cannot use the teeth in the same manner as Ziphius nove-zealandia does. Thus this species of Ziphioid Whale, as far as our observations in New Zealand go, stands apart in this strange habit of life by which, as far as we know at present, both young and aged females are made sufferers, the form and peculiar position of the teeth in front of the protruding lower jaw, making these savage attacks possible. It will be of some interest to obtain a male of the same species, in order to ascertain if it is also covered with similar scars. The outlines of the right side of the animal were drawn from careful measurements, and the oval and seamed scars conscientiously copied from nature by Mr. T. S. Cousins. Finally, I should like to make a few observations on the nomenclature, and the changes proposed. There is no doubt that the generic name Epiodon has to give way to Ziphius, but I think it rather premature to follow Dr, Hector's example, and io merge our New Zealand species into the European Ziphius cavirostris of Cuvier, till we possess some more detailed accounts of the form, colour, and anatomical structure of the different species of Ziphius described under various names from other countries. For instance, we know already that the Epiodon australe, of Burmeister, had a light ash-colour (ceniza clara), that it was darker on the back, lighter on the belly, and moreover, that its forehead was not swollen. Epiodon desmarestii, according to Risso, is steel grey, with numerous irregular white streaks, beneath white, head not swollen, ending in a long nose. Consequently, in both these well-described species, there is considerable difference in their appearance when compared with the New Zealand Ziphius, a difference which certainly is of some specific value, and ought not to be set aside without good cause being shown to the contrary. In plate VIII., b is the vent, c the pudendum, and d the fold. Amr. XXIL— On the Occurrence of the Red-capped Dotterel (Hiaticula rufi- capilla) in New Zealand. By T. W. Kx, Assistant in the Colonial useum. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th October, 1879.] I mave much pleasure in laying before the Society a fine specimen of the Red-capped Dotterel, which was obtained in December last on the beach * Trans, N.Z, Inst., Vol. X., p. 338, Kink.— On the Occurrence of. Red-capped Dotterel in New Zealand. 247 between Otaki and Waikanae. At first sight I took it to be a very small speci- men of the Banded Dotterel (Charadrius bicinctus), several specimens of which were lying near, but observing that the colouration of the feet, breast, and head differed very much from that of C. bicinctus, I carefully preserved the skin. Having since made a minute examination, I have not the slightest hesitation in pronouncing it to be a specimen of Gould's Hiaticula rufica- pilla; it appears to be a very common Australian species. Mr. Gould, in his ** Handbook to the Birds of Australia,"* states :— ** The Red-capped Dotterel is universally dispersed over every part of the sea-shores of Australia that I have visited, and everywhere evinces a greater preference- for the shingly beach of the ocean, and especially for deep salt-water bays, than for the sides of rivers and inland waters; it is very numerous in Tasmania, on Flinders' Island, on the sand-banks at the mouth of the Hunter in New South Wales, and at Port Adelaide in South Australia; and Gilbert states that it is equally abundant in Western Australia, where it is likewise so strictly a bird of the coast that he never saw it inland. It is usually met with in pairs, but may be occasionally observed associating in small companies :— * Like the Tringe, this bird resorts to every possible device in order to lure the intruder from its nest; throwing itself down upon its breast and flapping its wings, as if in the agonies of death, it will so continue until he has approached almost near enough to place his hand upon it, when it moves along for several yards, dragging one of its legs behind, and, if still followed, attempts to fly, and so well imitates the motion of a bird wounded in the wing, that the intruder is easily misled, and the eggs remain un- discovered.”’ * The male has the forehead crossed by a broad band of white, which gradually diminishes to a point at the posterior angle of the eye; above, a band of black, which also diminishes to a point at the same place; from the angle of the mouth to the eye, a line of black, which is continued from the posterior angle of the eye down the sides of the neck; crown of head, nape, and back of neck, rich rusty red; all the upper surface and wings pale brown, each feather margined with a still lighter tint: primaries, blackish-brown ; the shafts and extreme edge of the inner webs white; four central tail-feathers dark brown, the remainder white ; all the under surface white; irides very dark brown ; bill dark reddish brown ; naked part of legs above the tarsi dark greenish grey, tarsi light grey ; feet blackish brown.” The example before us is probably an accidental straggler to our shores from Australia, it is, however, a very interesting addition to our list of New Zealand birds. * Vol. IL, p. 235. 248 Transactions. — Zoology. Art. XXIIL—— RHemarks on some curious Specimens of New Zealand Birds. By T. W. Km, Assistant in the Colonial Museum. (Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th October, 1879.] Ir will be remembered that, in 1876, Dr. Buller read before this Society descriptions of several varieties of the Common Wood-Pigeon (Carpophaya nove-zealandie). I have now the pleasure of bringing under your notice two additional examples of albinism in this species. No. 1 is a beautiful albino, the whole plumage being pure white, with the exception of the lesser wing-coverts, which are a delicate yellowish- brown colour, but much more decided than in the specimen mentioned by Dr. Buller. The claws are yellow instead of black, which is the normal colour. This specimen was shot at Springhill Station, Upper Whareama, by Mr. A. Cameron, and by him presented to the Museum; he says it has frequently been seen about the station during the last four years. No. 2 is a partial albino. The head, neck, back, and fore-part of the breast are light brown, stained in places with coppery-purple ; lesser wing- coverts, coppery-purple ; quills and their coverts, light brown; quills tipped and margined with white. Tail-feathers brown, tipped with white; under- surface steel grey, changing to brown towards the extremities ; under-parts from breast downwards, white, slightly tinged with brown ; eyes and feet the usual carmine pink ; claws yellowish-pink, tipped with black. This specimen was procured at Pahautanui, and presented to the Museum by Mr. Wise, a very old resident in the district. The next specimen I have to draw your attention to is a curious and interesting variety of the Kotuku, or White Heron (Ardea syrmatophora). On the right wing, near the ** bend," is a patch of dark feathers; thence a band of black and brown passes right over the back and joins a much larger patch of the same colour on the left wing, and then extends obliquely across the breast, becoming fainter as it again approaches the left side. Inner webs of primaries, lining of wings and flank-feathers, more or less marked with brown, passing in places into black. A black patch about an inch in length will also be noticed on the outer web of one of the * secondary plume feathers." I have never before heard of a specimen of this species possessing a single coloured feather, and indeed I am informed that ** White as a Kotuku” has passed into a proverb amongst the natives. I was therefore surprised, when, on proceeding to examine the six specimens contained in the “ type collection,” in the Colonial Museum, I found that no less than three of them had the wings, especially the under-surfaces, more or less spotted or dashed with brown and black. T. W. Kirx.—On the Nesting Habits of Glaucopis cinerea. 249 The accompanying sketch represents a curious deformity (if I may use the term) in the bill of a female Huia (Heteralocha acutirostris), now in the Museum collection. It is evidently the result of an accident, and from its appearance I should say that a shot had just passed below the nostril, splitting the bill in the manner shown. The left side of the upper mandible has also been broken off, but this was evidently a subsequent misfortune, as the broken edge is still somewhat sharp; while the top of the bill and “ spike ” are smooth and polished. This unfortunate bird was presented to the Museum several years ago, by Mr. J. D. Enys, who shot it at Akitea. Art. XXIV.— Notes on the Nesting Habits of the Orange-wattled Crow. By W. D. Campsett, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 27th September, 1879.) Tue nature of the nesting habits of the Glaucopis cinerea (Orange-wattled Crow) have been as yet entirely unknown, and the author, having chanced to find, towards the end of February last, two nests of this species near the Ko-i-te-rangi hill, on the Hokitika river, forwards the following description of them. The nests, which were 15 inches externally, were somewhat loosely con- structed of twigs and roots, and had well-formed cup-shaped interiors, lined with pine roots and twigs; they were built in the branches of the Coprosma, or “black” scrub, which grows upon the low river-flats of Westland, near the mountain ranges. The average height of the scrub in this instance was about 15 feet, while the nests were about 9 feet above the ground, and 200 feet distant from each other; one contained an egg, the other, two nearly fledged birds. The egg has been presented to the Colonial Mu- seum. The two young birds were kept for some weeks in a cage for the 25 250 _Transactions.— Zoology... purpose of studying their habits; their wattles were of a light-rose tint, changing into a violet colour towards the base, but after death, when their skins were dried, the wattles assumed a dull orange tint. The parent birds had wattles of the usual rich crimson-lake colour, the base being tinted with violet as in the young birds. The egg has almost similarly rounded extremities. Length 1-7 inch, breadth 1:1 inch; the under tint of the egg is brownish, mottled with grey and dark brown blotches which are larger and darker at the larger ends. Arr. XXV.—On the New Zealand Frog. By Dr. Frirzincer. Translated from the Zoology of the Voyage of the ** Novara," by Professor Hutton. [Read before the Otago Institute, 14th October, 1879.] Family Bombinatoride. Auprrory passage imperfectly developed ; transverse processes of the sacral vertebra triangular, flat; no paratoids. (Fingers and toes not dilated at the tips; maxillary teeth). Genus Leiopelma, Fitz. Tympanum, sacs, and auditory tubes wanting; teeth in the upper jaw, and in two faint oblique rows on the palate, behind and between the interior nares. Tongue roundish, more orless margined. Fingers free. Toes half webbed. Projection of the navicular bone small. L. mocusrETTERI, Fitz. Verhandl. d. zool-bot. Gesellschaft zu Wien, Jahrg 1861; Xl; pag. 218, Taf. V1. Body moderately compressed. Eyes rather large; muzzle rather longer than the eye; exterior nostrils rather nearer to the eye than to the end of the muzzle. A glandular fold between the posterior corner of the eye and the shoul- der; a second from the eyes, along the sides of the body to the thighs. Several warts about the corner of the mouth, and a few smaller ones on the back and on the sides of the rump. Two smooth, yellow callosities on the palm of the hand, one on the metacarpus of the thumb, and one near that of the fourth finger. Fingers and toes depressed. Toes connected by the web for about half their length, the free part bordered by the membrane. Projection of the navicular bone faintly elevated. A dark-grey triangular band between the eyes, in front of which is a broadish and lighter oblique stripe; hind limbs with broad cross. bands on a yellowish-brown ground. Belly and sides of rump dirty grey-violet, marbled with yellowish-brown; a Corenso.—On a supposed new Species of Naultinus. 251 light oblique streak running down from the anterior and posterior corners of the eye, and diverging to the rim of the upper jaw. Male without sound- bag. Coromandel, near Auckland. Art. XXVI.—Notes and Observations on the Animal Economy and Habits of one of our New Zealand Lizards, supposed to be a new Species of Naultinus. By W. Cotenso, F.L.S. [Read before the Hawke’s Bay Philosophical Institute, 12th May, 1879.] Havine had ample opportunities, during the past year, of observing the habits and manners of these elegant little animals in a state of captivity, and believing all such to be almost wholly unknown, I have thought it desirable to give a pretty full description of the same; seeing, too, that I succeeded better in rearing and keeping alive these lizards than I did with the larger one, Hatteria punctata (or Sphenodon), in. 1840. In the winter of 1878, I received a glass jar from Hampden, in this provincial district, containing three full-grown living green lizards. They were pretty nearly alike in size; two of them were spotted with large irre- gular-shaped light-green spots, or markings, and one was wholly green. They had been found together, a short time before, in a hole, with a fourth, which was accidentally killed; and, on their capture, were put carefully into a jar, and packed loosely in moss. On my receiving them I found them apparently very well, but unwilling to move or to face the light, seeking to bury themselves more and more in their mossy bed, so I left them alone, believing they were hybernating. Meanwhile, I made many enquiries, by letter, as to their **hole," its linings, etc., but gained little reliable information, save that “in it, and with them, was a lot of stuff like blasting powder;" this, I have reason to believe, was the fecal debris. I greatly regretted the loss of the fourth, as I think that would have proved to be a green male. During the winter I looked at them three or four times, but they always acted in the same manner, as if averse to having their quiet sleep disturbed. On again looking at them early in October, I found them wholly altered ; they were now desirous of coming to the light, restless, and pawing against the glass, and had increased in number, having four little ones! two being spotted with white, and two entirely green ; their lovely little bodies looking as if cased in silk velvet instead of scales; this appearance continued for some weeks, I now lost no time in removing them to more suitable 252 Transactions.— Zoology. lodgings, placing them under a circular glass dome, of 10 inches diameter, with a few leafy twigs of koromiko (Veronica salicifolia), and giving them water in an oblong flint-glass salt-cellar, which, from its form and thick- ness, they could not upset. I knew they must be hungry, and I tried them with several things in the way of food, as bits of meat, both raw and cooked, of various fruits, of bread, of succulent roots and vegetables, and with small larve (caterpillars), but nothing would they touch. At last, as the warm weather came on, I tried them with a few flies, which were killed, or made motionless, in catching, these, also, they would not touch, or even look at. At length I put some living flies into their crystal palace, and these they soon caught and ate—that is the three adult lizards. For a long time I sought in vain for very small tiny flies for the young ones, and when I did succeed in getting a few, it was some time before the baby lizards managed to catch and swallow any (although the little things pursued them with longing eyes!) as the fly, when caught, in struggling, would often escape out of their tiny mouths, which was the more easily effected through the lizards not having any teeth to hold by, and the powers of the young ones were but feeble through their long fasting. One day I happened to give them three or four of the large red-brown viviparous flesh-fly (Musca lemica), thinking the large lizards, at least, would now have a good meal, and when I was not a little surprised to see them scuttle about in all direc- tions, wholly turning away from these flies, and apparently endeavouring to hide themselves (or their heads) among the koromiko leaves. For some time I did not understand this new movement, and I subsequently noticed, that while some of these red-brown flesh-flies were eaten (being gone), others were left dead on the floor of their cage. Early in November I was sorry to observe that the young ones, although all four had grown rapidly in length, were daily becoming more weak, especially the two entirely green ones; this, of course, was owing to their not eating. On the 8rd of November one of the young green ones died. At this time, too, the head of one of the adult lizards (as I believe, the female one) swelled much, changed to a livid colour, and grew to an un- shapely size, with a bloody discharge distilling from its ears. I thought, that something being the matter with its head, the other lizards in their scrambling about over each other (which they commonly do) had fixed their sharp claws in its ears, being now tender, and so caused them to bleed, &c. The sick lizard, however, was very patient under it; and as its disorder increased, the skin of its head became more and more stretched with the swelling, and great and irregular throbbings or undulations were very apparent. (Here I should mention, that the regular pulsation in their throats is always prominently seen), And so, as this diseased lizard became CoLEnso.—On a supposed new Species of Naultinus. 258 offensive, yet still living (though not eating), dirtying the others with its discharges, anal now as well as aural, I threw it out into the field On the 16th November I looked at my lizards, as usual, in the morning before going to town, and found them right; but on my return, at one o'clock, p.m., the biggest spotted one (which I believe to be a male) had cast its skin !—or epidermis !—it was nearly all got off, and almost entire. I helped it, by holding its scurf, to draw out its tail. I was much pleased at this for several reasons—some I may here mention: (1.) The beautiful new sparkling vivid green colour of the animal! now, for the first time seen in its living beauty. (2.) The cast-skin, or seurf, truly a curious object ; showing, not only every scale, and joint, and spot, and marking, including the little fingers of its tiny gloves close down to its claws; but, also, the very outer skin or film of its labial scales, and of its eyes. (8.) The cast skin was not at all coloured green like the animal, but was merely of a light grey colour with lighter patches corresponding with its large white spots. (4.) It had- commenced breaking away under the chin, and so peeled off from its snout regularly down its back and body to the tip of its tail. (5.) I might now expect to know something certain of this animal’s economy (and of its con- geners), as to how often in the year it would cast its skin. One of the spotted young ones (which I shall term No. 1.) also cast its skin on the 6th December; like that of the large male it commenced at the snout, but it came away in fragments—perhaps owing to its being both young and tender. On the 8th December the second young green lizard died, just as the former young one died, from starvation. This one had, in common with the two young spotted ones, plenty of small flies (now more easily obtained as the summer advanced), but it wanted the power to catch any. About the 12th December the two remaining adult lizards seemed to be getting into a diseased state; the handsome male, which had so lately shed its outer skin, had something the matter with its ear, from which a bloody discharge was oozing (resembling in a smaller degree the early diseased state of the adult one that died), while the adult female was restless, swelled in the lower abdomen, and discharging a bloody mixture from its anus; finding this one getting rapidly worse, with its anus greatly swelled and blotchy—starred all round the margin as it were in a curious regular man- ner—lI lost no time in putting it into a bottle of spirits, and, on my going to look at it some ten minutes after, I found, to my astonishment, no less than 26 large living larve of that red-brown flesh-fly had been discharged from its anus! These were each 5 lines long, and it was their posterior ends compacted together and jutting out from the lizard’s anus which given it in that part its peculiar appearance. Now it flashed across my 254 Transactions.— Zoology. mind,—their evident dislike and dread on their first seeing that flesh-fly in their cage; and that this was also the cause of the death of my first lizard, into which the living larve had been deposited through its ears! causing its head to possess and show those ugly, unnatural throbbings or semi- undulations. I now hastened to the adult male lizard, and caught it, and on gently squeezing its head I saw the posterior end of a larva presenting itself within its ear; I took a needle and extracted it; it was much larger than those in the spirits, and gorged with blood. After this the male lizard soon recovered and became lively, though that aural orifice completely closed up, and so remained until the next shedding of its skin, when I was glad to find that it resumed its former appearance. From the time of this discovery I was careful not to give them any more viviparous female flesh- flies, consequently I have had no more similar diseases to notice. The other young spotted lizard (No. 2) shed its skin for the first time on the 16th December, taking, however, until the 22nd ere it entirely got it off. This little animal interested me much in its undergoing its change of dress ; for as the other young one (No. 1) had taken me by surprise, in its early disrobing, I had closely watched this one (No. 2), supposing its turn could not be far off; and first I noticed, that the day before that it began to cast its skin, its whole body assumed a whitish milky appearance, as if it had been dipped into milk and the milk had dried upon it; or, as if it were closely covered with very fine and transparent white muslin; second, just as in the case of the others, the epidermis first broke at the snout and chin, and subsequently gave way over the loins and hind-legs, peeling off in large flakes. After a day or two the lizard seemed to get impatient about the getting-off of its old coat, and every now and then would lay hold of the rags with its mouth and pull away, and sometimes try to force them off with its little claws, but I scarcely ever noticed that it effected anything ; it would rub, too, against its water-pot (the salt-cellar), and sometimes against the large lizard, and the koromiko stalks—showing clearly that in their natural state they seek the aid of closely-growing grasses and other small herbage the more quickly to effect their deliverance; at last, on the 22nd, I caught the lizard, and helped it to get off its tattered stockings, gloves, and tail-case, and so put an end to its discomfort. The big male lizard again shed its skin on the 24th January; this time, however, in fragments, yet done quickly, all being over within two hours. And again this lizard shed its skin on the 15th of March, this time in large pieces; finding that while it had extricated its hind-legs it could not draw out its tail, I caught it and helped it to do so. It was pleasing to see how quietly it remained in my hand, when it found out what I was doing, and how naturally it moved its long tail in an easy wriggling manner, and with CorzNso.—On a supposed new Species of Naultinus. 255 strong muscular power pulling against me, so that the whole outer skin of the tail came off, as at first, in one unbroken piece. The cast skin is damp, soft, and slightly clammy, on its being shed, but it quickly dries and hardens. The young lizard (No. 1) next cast off its skin on the 91st December, having assumed the milky appearance already mentioned the day before ; and to my great surprise this same lizard again put on the cloudy milky appearance on the 13th January, and again shed its skin on the following day when its scurf was just a fortnight old! As before, it began to break away at its snout, but on this occasion, somehow, possibly owing to its finéness, it got rolled up together and backwards behind its eyes, giving the animal with its white wig the drollest appearance imaginable, so that I often laughed outright! This time it was very slow in casting off its rags, as parts of its skin were still hanging on its sides on the 24th January—just ten days —when I caught it and helped it. This lizard again shed its skin on the 1st March, when it was two days in getting it wholly off: often biting it and tearing at it with its claws. The next time it did so was on the 19th April, having assumed the usual milky appearance two days before; on this occa- sion its old scurf first broke through over its back. The other young lizard (No. 2) again cast off its outer skin on the 5th February, having the day before put on the peculiar milky appearance. So that, during the past seven or eight spring and summer months, those three lizards have each shed their epidermis as follows :— Big adult male, 1878, November 16; 1879, January 24; March 15.* Young one, No. 1, 1878, December 6, December 81; 1879, January 14, March 1, April 19. Young one, No. 2, 1878, December 16; 1879, Feb- ruary 5. Their manner of taking their prey (flies) is peculiar: When the lizard clearly sees the fly, and makes sure it is living, it steals towards it in the most stealthy manner. As the lizard nears the fly, and when within two inches of it, then is the time closely to notice its actions. First it arches its neck to a tolerably sharp angle, and its eyes swell and bulge out, or rather upwards, over their orbits, and the expression of its countenance alters greatly, taking on a fierce look ; next it lifts its little hand-like paws and moves them, only a toe or a finger at a time and often in the air, very slowly and cautiously (much like a little child does its hands when stealing along on tip-toe), and then it nears its head towards its: prey, but so very slowly that I have better detected its movement by watching its shadow cast on marked paper by strong sunlight,—reminding me of the almost imperceptible movement of the hour-hand of a clock. At last it has got to * Vide Addendum, 256 ' Transactions.— Zoology. about one inch, or a little less, from the fly, when as quick as light the dart is made, and the fly is caught; and then the little lizard rapidly knocks about its prey from side to side as a terrier with a rat, not however striking the fly against anything, merely shaking it. After a short time so spent the lizard proceeds to swallow the fly, which it does by half opening its mouth and drawing it in, and generally, after three or four movements of this kind, the fly is gulped down whole—legs and wings and bristles! Notwith- standing its struggles, I have been surprised at two things here: (1.) that it does not matter how the fly (or moth) is seized, whether by head or tail or side, down it goes, in despite of its long legs and wings; and (2.) that such a very small throat as the young ones have can so readily swallow a tolerably large fly (or moth) whole, and that, too, without showing any outward distention of the throat beneath ; for although it keeps its head elevated, you cannot trace the prey going down the lizard's gullet! "The larger adult lizards, however, do not knock about their heads with their prey in their mouths; they just give the usual two or three movements of their jaws, and the fly is swallowed! Sometimes it is one of the largest “ blue-bottles." And the young ones, I notice, do not now knock about their heads when they have seized their prey so much as they did at first. On two or three occasions, when flies have been rather scarce, and the little lizards hungry, I have seen when one had got the fly into its mouth, the other would make up towards it, arch its neck, and put on the usual ferocious look, and, watching the time when the lizard with the fly in its mouth should open its jaws to make its swallowing movement, dart forwards and lay hold of the part of the fly outside of the mouth of the other. And now they both hold on to the fly—the fly getting the worst of it between them—and sometimes one and sometimes the other gets the prize; and, on more than one occasion, I have seen the fly get away from them after all its pinching! and fly and crawl about a little longer; showing that so far it was not greatly hurt. They often miss catching the fly when they make their dart upon it, for it flies away when the lizard looks stupidly about ; the escaped fly flies around the glass, and sometimes comes back to the same spot or nearly so, and not unfrequently alights on the lizard's snout ! When it does this, the lizard does not seek immediately to recapture it i On several occasions, when a fly has got into their water-trough, and is there struggling, I have seen them climb up and make a dart at it, and so take it in the water. I have mentioned moths. On a few occasions, when without flies, I have given the lizards a moth or two, of from 1 inch to 14 inches in length, and the lizards would catch and eat them just as they did flies, but the down would stick to their lips for some time ere they managed to swallow it, Cotenso.—On a supposed new Species of Naultinus. 257 which they also did. The large lizard often puts its tongue out (“licking its lips") when it goes after a fly, especially if a big one; I am inelined to think that it is hungry then. It is pretty to see the two young lizards going together after the same fly, especially if the fly is crawling above them, within, on the glass roof; to see them walking slowly, side by side, with measured gait, and step by step, like a pair of hounds in a leash or a couple of miniature fairy-like little creatures, with their heads up, and their little black eyes glistening ; at such times, too, when they at last near the fly, they often trample on each other in their eagerness, but whenever they do so, they always take it very quietly, the one eel: neither struggling nor retaliating. It has often seemed to me as if it were a natural law, or rule, of these lizards (a thing understood by them), that whenever they trample on, or walk slowly over, each other, or stand, or lie, or even sleep on each other, the under one, or ones, always take it patiently, and rarely ever move at all—not even when the sharp claws of the upper lizard are pressing on the eyes of the one under him: I have often been surprised at this. I have never onee seen them fight or fall out, or attempt to bite eaeh other, although confined in so small a compass. They often spend hours lying on each other's backs, which is a favourite posture with them, and sometimes sleep, or spend, the whole night thus. I have seen the whole seven thus together in one lump, with, sometimes, the little ones underneath. They don't seem very timid nor easily startled to any great degree with noises, or sights, or sounds. I keep them on the table in my sitting-room, at which I take my meals, etc., and I have often thrown down a newspaper by their side, or struek the table with a book pretty strongly, yet they never start; it is the same when the candles are lit. They appear, too, as if they — liked to snugly ensconce themselves in their cage under the koromiko branch, or (the two young’ ones) stretched out at full length on the upper side of the twigs. I believe them to be inoffensive, peaceful, and sociable ; and if, as I have already surmised, the fourth one (whieh was killed) was also a male, then there would have been two couples, at least, hybernating together in one **hole;" or that ** hole" may have been their usual dwelling-place, seeing there were found in it “lots of black stuff "— no doubt their dry and har- dened fæces, which could not, I think, have been so largely deposited during the short period then passed of their hybernation. An intelligent friend in the eountry, who is also an observer of nature, has informed me that he has found them, in clearing, ‘six or seven together, euddled up under the roots of a flax-bush " (Phormium). It is pretty to see them drinking, which they do but seldom ; they lap water much like a cat, but very slowly, as if they were tasting it; every now 26 258 l'ransactions.— Zoology. and then passing their broad, thin, and large tongue right over their eyes, as if washing them, and always so finishing their drinking. I have also seen them lick the wet koromiko leaves when fresh; and the young ones, more than once, lick the adult male. Their tongue and palate are of a deep purple colour, much like that of some plums, and the tongue, when fully extended (as in licking), has an emarginate appearance, which may, however, be owing to the action of the hyoid muscle. They seem to like the water, as they often go singly into their water- trough, and remain extended in the water for some time. They can swim very fast, too, but clumsily, as if they were in a great hurry about it; I have occasionally tried them at swimming in a large vessel of water. They can run very swiftly, as I have often proved. When they merely walk, their tails are always straight; but when they make haste their tails are undulated laterally throughout their whole length. Here, no doubt, their under-squame help them ; this, indeed, I have in a measure ascer- tained, in my taking the large lizard into my hands and holding it vertically, when, to aid its ascent in crawling, all the squame below are used strongly, and one feels them curiously applied against the hand.* This, also, I think, will account for their being able to climb up on the outside of their glass dome, which they can do—in which feat they are no doubt also materially aided by the large transverse scales on their toes, which are a beautiful object, and admirably adapted for climbing purposes. Their claws, too, are exceedingly sharp, having a translucent or semi-crystalline appearance, and are set on at almost a right angle to their toes. One can hardly bear to hold them in one’s hand when they struggle and use their sharp claws. Their tails have also a strong prehensile power, as I have found in their clasping my fingers with them very closely, and so holding on. On one occasion I had to clear the tail of one which was fast, having taken a half- turn over itself in the sharp angle of a twiggy branch of half-withered and flaccid koromiko, which, I suppose, it had pressed down by lying upon it. They sometimes spring a short distance very nimbly when they wish to get away from any little obstructions ; and they also jump down fearlessly and without hesitation. I have taken them up and allowed them to run over a book, etc., held horizontally, 2-8 feet above the table, when they would run straight over the edge of the book and drop on the table on all- fours, like a weasel or a cat, and so continue to run as before. They assume all manner of curious and grotesque positions, some of them being most extraordinary, and some apparently painful, but in reality I suppose are not so. Whatever posture they assume they both can and * The sensation being just as if every single scale was being forcibly moved forwards in rapid succession by the muscles of the animal. CorENso.—On a supposed new Species of Naultinus. 259 do keep it for a long time, often remaining motionless for hours, occasion- ally even days, in one position. I have often thought, that if a correct drawing were taken of the lizards when in such queer postures, the ery of “How unnatural!” would surely be raised on its being looked at. Some- times they will take a peculiar position on the edge of their water-trough (glass salt-cellar), there, with their tails within it, and merely holding on by - their hind-feet on the narrow outer edge, they will project themselves for- ward in the air, and so either keep themselves quietly extended, or paw about in the air with their fore-legs, for some time. The large one will stand up against the glass dome (on the inside) with its fore-feet spread out on the glass, and its long tail curled in under it in a perfect ring, and its two hind-feet clasping its tail on the opposite side of the ring! Some- times the young ones will raise themselves against the glass (within) and there stretch out their four paws on the glass, and so support themselves on their tail, which is for this purpose bent a little below its base, having the lower portion extended on the floor (much as a kangaroo is sometimes drawn) and in this posture they will remain 2-8 hours without moving. I have seen one of the young ones lay itself along the edge of its water-trough having its two feet of one side just within it, with the two feet of the other side low down on the outside, and its tail passed around the end and further side above the floor, and so remain immovable for half-a-day! I have also noticed one of them stretched among the koromiko twigs, having one of its little fore-legs twisted up backwards over its back! apparently as if dislo- cated or broken, and so remain for séveral hours. I have also observed the young ones standing for a considerable time with the 5th (or outer) toe of each hind-foot turned in completely underneath the sole from the first phalanx, so that no vestige of that toe could possibly be seen. The joints of their legs and toes seem to be strangely formed, as if reversible at their willin action. Sometimes one of the young ones will stretch itself on the head of the adult male, looking towards its tail, just bringing its four paws and sharp-pointed claws into the head and eyes of the large lizard by which it holds on! at other times the young one will quite reverse that position, looking ahead of the large lizard, but with its feet and claws as before (only reversed) and so remain for hours; the big one under him not moving. It is pleasing to notice them when a fresh leafy branch of koromiko is put into their cage, then the two small ones will climb up and extend them- selves along the branchlets, while the adult lizard will curl himself up among the leaves below, and so they will quietly remain. On one occasion in the spring, when the whole seven were alive together, I noticed, one evening, one of the adult lizards on its side in the salt-cellar with its legs and feet as if twisted unnaturally over the edge; I first observed it about 5 p.m., at 260 Transactions.— Zoology. 8 p.m. it had not moved, so also it was at 11 p.m., when I went to bed, and when I came down the next morning it was still in exactly the same strange position; I now thought it could not easily get out, so I lifted the glass to help it, but the moment I did so it scuttled away very fast. They always take a most peculiar attitude to void their fæces, which, however, they do not perform frequently. I always know when they are about to do so (if on the look-out), for with young and old their preparation is pretty much alike. They first lift up their tails in a semi-curvature towards their backs, then they lift their hind-feet from the floor, and so slowly void their one pellet; which done they gently lower their hind-feet, and then their tail, and move away. On one occasion I saw the adult male lizard, which was quietly at ease among the koromiko twigs, leave its lair and climb up into the water-trough ; at first I thought it was going to drink, or to bathe in the water, but I was agreeably surprised in noting its actions ; having got into the salt-cellar, it placed its feet on both sides, cocked-up its big tail, and voided its pellet into the water! That over, it leisurely descended to its former resting-place. In their voiding the fecal pellet the anus of the animal is produced much more than would be sup- posed. Their dung is of a long oval shape 4-5 lines long, and not unlike that of a sheep ; it is black in colour, but always with a white adjunct (uric acid), somewhat resembling that of a fowl, which portion always appears first ; they void rather slowly. Sometimes, especially after eating ‘* blue- bottle flies,” the portions of the fly in rather coarse fragments are very plain in the deposit. * It was highly curious to note what I believed to be the amorous manner of the adult male toward the female lizards, This happened early in the summer, but the loss of the two females (supra) of course put a stop to it. He would chase the female in a peculiar strutting manner round and round their cage, moving his head horizontally very regularly and constantly with a jerk from right to left, and left to right, until he should lay hold of her, which he invariably did by the loose skin on the nape of the neck, when, having so eaught her, he was still—sometimes for half-an-hour or more— holding quietly on all the time, but on her irying to get loose, which she easily did, the same kind of pursuit would follow, to be ended in a similar way. As the summer advanced his teasing manner became so constant, and evidently to the annoyance of the two females—giving them all no rest in their little eage—that I had thoughts of removing him into another, which I suppose I should haye done had the two females not died. Although I have often handled and stroked them, only on one occasion did one of them bite me ; this was the adult male, and I had teased him a bit,—but his bite was but a gentle pinch, scarcely perceptible! I have a CorENso.—On a supposed new Species of Naultinus. 261 growing fancy that they know me, for now they often come to the side of the glass nearest to me when I am observing them, particularly the two young ones,—this they did not at first. Indeed it is interesting to watch . them, when I have them in their glass cage on my writing-table, close to me, when engaged in writing, to see them come to the side of the glass nearest to me, and there paw the glass, or stand up quietly on their hind- legs against it, evidently watching me closely with their pretty bright eyes, sometimes turning their little heads just as I may move. Of course they will not take a fly from my hands, for, let them be ever so hungry, as I have said before, they must see the fly moving before they will touch it. I believe them to be endowed with great powers of abstinence ; I scarcely ever saw the two adult females that died take a fly, and I am sure they could not have had many during the months they were in confinement, yet they did not fall off much in size; so with those two young ones that died,— one of them never ate at all from its birth,—yet, they continued to grow in length, just as the other two young ones did which survived. The adult male has rarely ever eaten much, sometimes (as far as I know, and I have watched him closely) scarcely three flies in a week. On one occasion, however, in the summer, I saw him eat four large red-brown flesh-flies within ten minutes, as fast as I caught them singly and put them into the cage; this feat quite surprised me as I had never seen anything of the kind before or since. The two young ones will each now eat half-a-dozen of the common introduced house-flies in a day, but then, after doing so, they go some 2-8 days without eating ; each of'them certainly eats more than the adult, although they are not one-fifth of his size. I generally feed them twice in the week. Of the various kinds of flies I have given them, I think they prefer a shining green-bodied one (which is scarce), also a small kind of ** blue-bottle," I do not suppose they live on flies when in their natural habitat, rather on small Coleoptera. Their patience also, as I have already intimated, seems very great; speaking generally they like to remain in a quiet attitude, especially the adult; he, however, might also be widely different if he had a mate. Cold-blooded as they are (and they do feel cold when handled), yet 1 think they like the heat of the sun; for when I place their glass cage in its rays they never seek to evade them. The pupils of their eyes, which normally are of a narrow lenticular shape, in strong sun-light contract to a mere line,like those of a cat; they dilate, however, when about to seize their prey, also by candle-light, but not much, the pupil never becoming full. Their eyes also appear fixed, so that I believe they cannot see any small object (as a fly) when straight before them and pretty close to their nose, I have not detected their possessing any sense of smell, and have 262 Transactions.— Zoology. reasons for believing they are devoid of it. I have also never heard any cry or sound,* though the ancient New Zealanders would flee in terror from this animal (or an allied species, N, elegans), saying they had sometimes heard its cry, which they called kata (= laugh), which they also greatly disliked and considered ominous. But, though I have often seen N. elegans on shrubs, ete., in travelling in former years, I never myself heard its cry; possibly, it may only emit a cry at certain seasons. I should also mention that these lizards have had many opportunities of uttering a cry, if, like many other animals, sudden pain would extort such from them. For, in spite of all one's care, sometimes one of them will get its toe or tip of tail slightly caught in replacing the glass, when it twingles and twirls sur- prisingly until it is released, when it runs and jumps wildly around its cage for a few seconds—no doubt from pain—but it never makes a ery nor opens its mouth. In this way one of the young ones got its tail hurt, during my absence from home in the summer, and, although apparently it was only bruised, about 8-9 lines from the tip, it has not yet assumed the normal healthy appearance, and I much fear the tip may fall off; it has also lately lost part of one of its hind outer toes from the same cause. I advance this as a new species of Naultinus with some degree of doubt ; but it does not agree with those several descriptions of the various species of that genus in ** Trans. N.Z. Inst.," Vols. III. and IV., neither with the drawing therein given, said to be of N. punctatus, the outline of which is different. Should, however, this one here described be found hereafter to belong to one of them, then its specific description, as there given, will have to be amended. NaunTINUS PENTAGONALIS, Col. This species is distinguished from its two nearly allied and described species (N. elegans, and N. punctatus), by its larger size, longer toes, form of scales, number of inter-nasal shields, ete. Front of head, flat, somewhat depressed ; eyes, large, broadly orbicular, very prominent in the upper region; the fine scales of the infra-orbital fold, or ring, protruding causes a ciliated appearance ; aural apertures, large, elliptic; a strongly-marked median line, or groove, runs from the base of skull nearly to the end of tail; a large protuberance, or hemispherical swelling, immediately behind the vent, Seales on body and legs most regular and pentagonal; those on lower part of head, towards the snout, and between chin and throat, and behind vent on the swelling, are much larger than those of the body ; at base of tail, on each side of its junction with the thighs, and near the vent, are seven large transverse conical-pointed scales, in two rows, 2, those of the * Vide Addendum. CorENso.—On a supposed new Species of Naultinus. 263 upper row the largest, and one on one side bifid; (the two young ones are also each showing a row of three transverse conical scales at base of tail) ; a large semi-circular patch of pre-anal pores, continuous, in three rows of scales, on both-sides, in a long line (? inch), under thighs ; scales on tail imbricated, particularly towards the tip, where they are also smaller and slightly elongated ; three inter-nasal scales; labial scales large, $, gra- ually decreasing in size, that on the snout largest and emarginate, that on chin same size. Toes, long, narrow, fine, those of hind-legs nearly twice as long as those of the fore-legs, last three the longest, and about equal in length (5-6 lines), while the fourth toe is the longest of the fore-leg ; toes with large trans- verse seales, but the middle (palm) of foot has granular-like scales. General colour,—adult: bright emerald green, with large oblong irregular- shaped spots or splashes of dull white, diminishing in size in two broken but parallel lines running from head to tail, one on each side of the back bone; tip of tail, pink; belly, yellowish-green ; labial scales on both lips, light green of one hue; mouth, throat, and tongue (of both old and young), dark plum colour between purple and port; feet, tawny-white, or light cinnamon colour below. The young ones are marked each with about ten pairs of pure white irregularly-shaped spots, and nearly opposite, in two parallel lines running from head to tail, half of their number being on the body; one has a semi-circular white streak, 34 lines long on both sides of its head over the posterior angle of the eye and ear; and one has two additional longitudinal rows, one on each side, of minute whitish spots ; labial scales of under-lip, white ; belly, light pea-green. Length of adult, 7 inches 2 lines, of which the tail is nearly 8.6; of the young ones (one year old), 4 inches. The yonng, when first seen, were a little over one inch in length. ADDENDUM. Having obtained a few additional items of interest concerning those lizards since this paper was read, I give them here. Those lizards commenced hybernating early in July. Possibly they would sooner have done so, but I had kept them in my sitting-room, where there was a daily fire ; when, finding they did not care for food (flies), and remained still, I put them away in a dark back room, placing some soft hay in their house. They remained there until the 1st of October, when I brought them back—apparently thinner for their long fast, but healthy; the two young ones had also grown in length. They soon began to catch and eat flies as before. From the very small amount of fecal deposit found in their cage, I could not but think that the hole in which the original four were found must have been an old and often-used haunt. 264 Transactions.—Z oology. On ths 16th November, the young one, No. 2, cast its skin, much broken. (This one only shed its skin twice during the last summer.) On two occa- . sions since, I have seen it have a kind of convulsion fit—once in its cage, and once on my hand—during which its writhings were strange, as if its little legs were disjointed ; its head was thrown back and its mouth stretched wide open, showing its capacious throat; it also uttered two faint cries during the fit, and once tried to bite !—but such a little easy nip, scarcely perceptible. The adult one also, while I was handling (examining) it, bit me—in its fashion !—and twice uttered a cry because it could not get away. Their cry was a grave sound, a little low croak, something like an attempt on our part at uttering the letter a (broad) with the mouth open. I have since fully proved the strong prehensile power of their tails ; they ean hold on by them to a cord, or small branch, or to my finger, and thus suspend themselves for some time. An acquaintance here looking at them observed, that he once saw two green lizards (Naultinus sp.) together near Auckland ; in endeavouring to capture them, one got away among the fern, and the other was unfortu- nately killed. He, however, noticing that its abdomen was very large opened it, and found two small living lizards within. This statement strengthens me in my supposition that this lizard is viviparous. The adult lizard is now casting its skin in the usual manner (November 26th). Art. XXVII.— Description of a new (*) Genus and Species of Butterfly of the Sub-family Satyrine. By R. W. Ferepay, C.M.E.8.L. Plate IX. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 5th June, 1879.] LA, NOV. gen. Antenne, the club much narrower and longer than in Percnodaimon pluto, but not so narrow or long as im Erebia blandina. Eyes, naked. Labial palpi rather longer, and densely clothed with much longer stifüsh hairs than im P. pluto; the hairs of the tip forming an obtuse-pointed peneil. Body and legs clothed with rather longer hairs than im P. pluto. Wings entire. Primaries rather more elongate, and hind margin more oblique tham im P. pluto; the nervures and diseoidal cells of both the pri- maries and secondaries very similar to those of P. pluto ; except that in P. pluto, the first (c, fig. 8) sub-costal nervure is absent, and the space Frrepay.—On a new (7) Genus and Species of Butterfly. 265 between the externo-medial (a, figs. 2 and 8) and innermost (b, figs. 2 and 8) sub-costal nervures,* at their junction with the vein closing the discoidal cell, is rather broader than in P. pluto; none of the nervures dilated at the base. Type—E. butleri. The accompanying diagrams (plate IX.) represent : Fig. 1. The disposition of the nervures in the primary wings of F. blandina. 2. Do. do. do. do. P. pluto. 8. Do. do. do. and anie wings of E. but and are given for comparison; the figures enlarged to two dide. Not having the descriptions of all the genera of the Satyrine, I should hesitate in forming a new genus for this insect; but, as “the lower radial of primaries emitted above the angle of the diseocellulars instead of below it," is given by Mr. Butler} as one of the distinctive characters of his new genus Percnodaimon ; and as the now-describing butterfly has the like char- acter, but disagrees with Percnodaimon in the form of the club of the antenns, and the presence of the first sub-costal nervure ;{ I may reason- ably assume that it differs from all the other genera, and have therefore ventured to describe it as a new genus. Erebiola butleri, sp. no Primaries: Upper-side smoky black ; a white- via black ocellus between the externo-medial and innermost sub-costal nervures, and equidistant between the discoidal cell and hind margin. Under-side ferruginous, suf- fused (except the apical and hind-marginal area) with slaty black ; ocellus as on upper side; a sub-hind-marginal row of four whitish marks, the two nearest the apex being the more distinct and silvery, followed by a dusky shade on their outer margin. Secondaries: Upper-side smoky black; a transverse row of three minute white dots near the hind margin; the dots arranged in a straight line pointing towards the anal angle, and situated respectively between the externo-medial, subexterno-medial, interno-medial, and subinterno-medial nervures. Under-side ferruginous, suffused with a dusky shade from the base to the transverse row of spots; a longitudinal discoidal streak of silver; a transverse row of three silvery spots near the hind-margin, followed by two small longitudinal silvery streaks near the anal angle; ; also, * The Orismology in Kirby and Spence’s Introduction to Entomology (the only au- thority I have) is followed in describing the nervures.—R.W.F. 1 Ent. Mo. Mag. XIII., p. 152. 1 As Mr. Butler does not mention the absence of this nervure in describing his genus Percnodaimon, I imagine he must have overlooked it.—R.W.F. e 266 Transactions.— Zoology. a small longitudinal streak of silver between the latter streaks and the base of the wing ; the transverse row of spots consists of a conical spot—between the externo-medial and subexterno-medial nervures, with its apex pointing to the hind-margin; a sagittate spot between the subexterno-medial and interno-medial nervures; and a similar one between the externo-medial and subexterno-medial nervures, all bordered internally with a dusky shade; the latter two spots pointing towards the base of the wing, and each followed towards the hind-margin by a small silvery dot, between which and the hind-margin is a small silvery point, edged externally with black; a small pale, irregular subcostal mark near the base of the wing; and on the costa, two-thirds from the base of the wing, a larger pale triangular mark, followed by two pale irregular spots. Male and female alike, except in size. Expanse of Wings: male, 18} lines; female, 20 lines. Habitat: Whitcombe’s Pass, Canterbury, New Zealand. I have described this butterfly from three dilapidated specimens brought to me by J. D. Enys, Esq., who has favoured me with the following account of their capture :—‘‘I caught the three butterflies on Whitcombe’s Pass, up the Rakaia, on the 8th of March, 1879. The Pass is over 4000 feet, and the first of the butterflies was caught close to the top; the others were near it. They were knocked down by my hat and put in paper, which must be my excuse for their state. They seemed to be rather slow in their flight, and were chiefly found on the snow-grass (of the family Danthonia) which covers the slopes of the hills at that height. I saw a number, but only got four.” In the accompanying coloured drawing (Plate IX.), figure 4 represents the male; a, the under-side; b, the upper-side. I have named the butterfly after Mr. A. G. Butler, who has recently contributed valuable lists of, and papers on, the Lepidoptera of New Zealand, and to whom I am much indebted. [Sinee writing the above, Dr. Julius Von Haast informs me that it was & specimen of this butterfly which he took in 1866 on Whitcombe’s Pass, not of P. pluto, as he before stated (vide ** Trans. N.Z. Inst.,” Vol. IV., p. 217). Dr. Von Haast speaks from recollection, not having preserved the specimen he took.] Frrepay.—On new Butterflies. 267 Agr. XXVIII.—Description of a (?) new Species of the Family Leucanide, and a (?) new Species of the Genus (?) Chlenias. By R. W. FrnEDaY, C.M.E.S.L. (Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 26th Nov., 1879.) (?) Leucania sulcana, sp. nov.. (Plate IX., fig. 8'.) Body, stout. Thorax, pale ochreous. Abdomen, extending about one- fourth of its length beyond the hind-wings; fuscous; the male with pale fawn-coloured tuft; pale fawn-colour beneath. Antenne of male slightly serrated, and thickly ciliated. Palpi porrect, slightly ascending, extending considerably beyond the head; third joint slender, elongate-conical, about one-third the length of the second; thickly clothed; the second joint with long, and the third joint with short hairs. Legs rather stout; hind tibie with four spurs, each pair consisting of one long and one very short spur ; the short spurs with a broad band of black hairs. Fore-wings, pale ochreous, very sparsely irrorated with blackish scales, more especially in the regions of the postcostal and anal nervures, and apex; rather narrow, acute at the tip, outer margin oblique, a deep longitudinal depression extending from the base and running midway between the median and anal nervures to near the anal angle, the inner margin also being depressed, and the anal nervure running along the ridge between the depressions; a less deep longitudinal depression between the median and postcostal nervures; a brown shade runs longitudinally from near the centre of the disk to the hind margin, the shade inwardly dark and termin- ating abruptly at the median nervure and its third branch, and anteriorly fading away into the ground colour; a similar shade along the anterior side of the groove formed by the depression between the median and anal ner- vures ; a narrow, dusky shade along the middle of the inner margin, and a short dusky streak near the base of the inner margin; the brown shades in some specimens incline to red, in others to yellow; margin of costa brownish-ochreous, inclining to reddish-ochreous in some specimens ; along each side of the nervures, and also midway between the branches of the nervures, runs a groove; the grooves forming parallel striæ of ridge and furrow; the ridges pale and the furrows dusky; each central furrow terminating in a blackish marginal dot or point; the nervures rather paler than the disk of the wing ; a blackish central spot at the apex of the acute angle formed by the fork of the second and third branches of the median nervure; a small cluster of blackish scales in the discoidal cell at the point where the third branch springs from the median nervure; the su line represented by a blackish point on the first inner subcostal nervure, 268 Transactions.—Zoology. about midway between the central spot and the apex of the wing, and a blackish speck on the anal nervure; the inner line by a blackish dot imme- diately below the postcostal nervure and close to its first branch, and a blackish speck on the anal nervure; and the half-line by a blackish dot between the postcostal and median nervures. Hind-wings, bronzy-brown, with pale ochreous cilia. Fore and hind-wings below shining fuscous, with margin of costa pale ochreous, and apex and hind margin of fore-wing inclining to pale ochreous, Expanse of wings : 1" 6"—31" 9", Habitat; Akaroa, Canterbury; and Dunedin, Otago, New Zealand. The only specimens I have seen were taken by myself in the month of February, at Sugar, in à small bush on the shore at Akaroa; and in a bush at Dunedin—at the latter place only one specimen. The spurs of the hind tibi; of this insect do not accord with those of any of the genera of Leucanide, as described in the British Museum List of Lepidopterous Insects ;* and I might therefore not unreasonably consider myself justified in forming a new genus for this species, but refrain from so doing, inasmuch as Mr. Butler, of the British Museum, identified as Leucania semivittata, of Walkert, an insect having spurs similar to those of sulcana— at least so I infer from his having included L. semivittata in his paper ** On two collections of Heterocerous Lepidoptera from New Zealand, with descrip- tions of new genera and species ;”{ the collections which formed the subject of that paper having comprised numerous specimens of my own collecting, entrusted to Mr. J. D. Enys for the purpose of comparison and identification with species in the British Museum ; and amongst them were duplicate specimens, one of which was returned, labelled in Mr. Butler's handwriting, “ Leucania semivittata ;” and that specimen, and similar specimens in my collection, have the spurs of the hind tibie not * moderately long," as stated in the description of the genus Leucania in Walker's British Museum List, but each pair consisting of one long and one very short spur, as in sulcana above described. (?) Chlenias manwifera, sp. nov. (Plate IX., fig. 1.) Body rather stouter and more depressed that that of C. egregia of Felder. Head crested, as in C. egregia ; white above, black in front; a small white tuft above the proboscis. Proboscis long. Palpi porrect, extending a little beyond the head, as in C. egregia; third joint white, slender, clavate (not conical), more (not less) than half the length of the second, rather naked ; * Walker, Lep. Het., IX., p. 68, et seq. 1 Lep. Het., suppl. ii., p. 628, j Proceedings of Zoological Soc, of London, May 1st, 1877, p. 382, TRANS NZ.INSTIT T Ul uni wvirm Tv - VOI Xl BLIX. LZ LA. bith. Ferepay.— On new Butterflies. 269 first and second joints hirsute, black. Antenne of male pectinated; of female ciliated. Thorax short, slightly crested ; crest, tegule and patagia white, with the interstices black, and the hind margin of the crest black ; pectus white, with a black tippet in front. Fore-legs; tarsi (except the ends next the tibi) black; tibie white, with black patches. Middle and hind-legs ; tarsi (except the ends next the tibiæ) brown; tibie white, with brown patches ; tibim of hind-legs, with four moderately long spurs. Abdomen silky cinereous. Fore-wings elongate, not rounded at the tips; costa nearly straight; exterior border oblique and convex, except at tip, where it is slightly con- cave; pearly-white, with raised flecks; a black hastate patch at the base ; a central irregular, and very erose fascia, extending from the centre of the costa to the anal angle; a similar submarginal fascia flowing into the central fascia in the middle of the disk; between the central fascia and the basal patch are two fascie, that nearest the base biflexed and terminating, not on, but near to, the inner margin, with the upper sinus bending outwardly, and the lower inwardly, and each#inus much swollen; the other fascia running nearly parallel with the central fascia, slightly sinuous, erose, and disrupted in the discoidal cell; the central and submarginal fascie, and the fascia near the base, pale India-ink colour, somewhat inclining to brown, with the margins shaded or blotched with black; several black blotches and spots along the inner margin; costa spotted with black quadrate spots, four of which are situated between the central and submarginal fascie, and those next the fascie generally confluent therewith; a row of five conical spots on the hind margin and extending through the fringe, the middle one being conical and smaller than the others, and the latter having their points more or less blunted or excised; a small black mark on the hind margin at the apex of the wings. Under-side of both wings whitish, suffused and clouded with smoky-black; pale towards the base, and gradually darker towards the hind margin, where it is very dark ; cilia and margin of costa chequered with black and white; dusky markings indicate the position of the mark- ings on the upper side ; cilia broad. Hind-wings slightly dentate; hind margin crimped ; cinereous, with a pinkish gloss; very pale at the base, gradually darker towards the hind margin, which is very dark (especially in the female), except at the termi- nation of the nervures, where it is pale; a central transverse, indistinct, dusky shade, between which and the hind margin is a dusky transverse sinuous line with a large angle in the middle. Expanse of Wings: male, 1" q"—1" 8" ; female, 1" 11"—2" 0”. Habitat: Wellington, New Zealand. 270 Transactions.— Zoology. I have two specimens, presented to me by W. T. L. Travers, Esq., of Wellington, who eaptured one of them in the theatre, and the other in his garden at Wellington; and one specimen presented to me by Professor Hutton, of Dunedin, and captured I believe at Wellington. Such are the only specimens that have come to my knowledge. The -form of the central and submarginal fascim reminds me of the heraldie arms of the Isle of Man, and has suggested the name of manaifera for this species. Ihave given a drawing (fig. 2’) from a specimen (in my collection) of C. egregia, of Felder,* for the purpose of facilitating comparison with manzifera. The genus appears to me doubtful, for although my specimens of C. egregia entirely resemble Felder's figure, neither they nor any specimen of manzifera clearly agree—particularly as to the palpi and the shape of the tip of the fore-wing—with the genus Chlenias, as described in Walker's British Museum List;t nor do they clearly agree— particularly as to the hind-wing—with the family Ligide (comprising the genus Chlenias) as described in that List. " Art. XXIX.— Note and Description of a possibly new Species of Aplysia. By F. H. Merrnerrzuacen. [Read before the Hawkes Bay Philosophical Institute, 17th May, 1879.) Anmar a dark brown (kelp colour), spotted all over with grey pepper coloured spots. The edges of the lower lobe of the mantle marked evenly with alternate darker brown and grey. The lobe covering the shell striped with grey, all of which stripes point to, and narrow towards, the apex of the shell. Posterior sides of upper tentacles also a peppery grey colour. Shell faintly but finely striated concentrically, horny and flexible at the edges. Length of shell 1:15 inches, breadth 0-65 inches. Length of animal about 5 inches. Habitat: Waimarama, Hawke's Bay. The above animal appears to me to differ in colouring from A. brunnea, described by Capt. F. W. Hutton.i The shell also appears to me to differ in its measurements from those given by Capt. Hutton, and in appearance from that figured in his plate, being much longer in comparison with its breadth. ————— Áo LI T ee eee * Reise der Nov., Lep. V., Pl. CXXXI., Fig. 24. — + Lep. Het., XXIV., p. 1150. } Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol, VIL, p. 279. Hurron.—On Anas gracilis, Buller. 271 The coarse striations and shape of the shell of 4. venosa leave no doubt that my specimens differ from that animal. All my specimens discharged the purple fluid (which is characteristic of the genus) on being placed in fresh water, or otherwise annoyed. I noticed also that the lower lobes, which some authors say are used in swimming by this genus, are only used in that way by this species in a very qualified sense. They attach themselves to a rock or to sea-weed by their tail, and allow their body to drift about, simply guiding the direction of their body, and maintaining their upright position, by the movement of the lobes. As in Parmophorus, Bulla and Haliotis the shells of younger individuals were much larger in relation to their bodies than those of mature age. The two species, 4. brunnea and A. venosa, are, as far as I am aware, the only species of this family recorded in New Zealand; Capt. Hutton, in his “ List of the Marine Mollusca of New Zealand," mentions a single shell from the Bay of Islands. The habitats given for his two species are Wel- lington and Dunedin. The occurrence of this Molluse in this Province is therefore worth re- cording, even if it should prove to belong to one of those two species. If as I think, it is new, it requires to be put on record. I have, however, not had the advantage of seeing specimens of either of the above-mentioned species, so that I cannot definitely state the fact that it is new. Should it be so, I suggest that it should receive the name Aplysia tryonii, as a gentleman of the name of Tryon discovered it here, where I have (I trust not unobservantly in matters connected with conchology) lived for 11 years without having observed it. Art. XXX.—On Anas gracilis, Buller. By Professor Hurron, of the Otago University. [Read before the Otago Institute, 14th October, 1879.] Tue Otago Museum has lately received from Paris a specimen of Quer- quedula gibberifrons, Miiller, from Celebes, and on comparing it with a specimen of Anas gracilis, Buller, from Otago, I find so many points of difference that I am compelled to call in question Dr. Finsch’s identification of the two birds. In Q. gibberifrons the breadth of the bill at its base is equal to its height; while in A. gracilis it is higher than broad at the base. In Q. gibberifrons the wing is shorter, and the middle toe is longer than in A. gracilis. There are also the following differences in colour: in Q. gibberifrons the 272 Transactions. —Z oology. yellow of the lower mandible extends quite to the tip; the general plumage has a redder tinge; there is no white on the neck ; and the speculum is not bronzy in any light. The following are the dimensions of the two speci- mens. A. gracilis is a male, shot on the Kaitangata Lake in May, 1877. The sex of Q. gibberifrons is not given :— Bul. Mid-toe | Hind-toe ERE 1 : ing. |T .| without | without vage T Breadth| Height | Wing- |Tarsus without wine Q. gibberifrons eet S15 1:45 '6 6 7 1°35 1:5 “BL A. gracilis .. £1 29 1:45 5 *63 9: 1°25 1:38 B It thus appears to me that A. gracilis is distinct from Q. gibberifrons. Mr. E. P. Ramsay has compared a specimen of 4. gracilis with speci- mens of 4. castanea, Eyton,* and finds the differences between the two to be very slight. A comparison of the specimens in the Otago Museum shows that the difference in the width of the shield is not constant, it being *4 in A. gracilis, and :88, and +45 in two specimens of A. castanea. The leg and foot, however, appear to be slightly larger in A. castanea. The nail at the end of the bill is also narrower in A. gracilis than in either of the others. It is 19 in A. gracilis ; +24 in Q. gibberifrons ; and +24, and -26 respectively, in the two specimens of A. castanea. These differences, even if constant, are not of specific value, and merely mark a geographical race ; and con- sequently, in my opinion, 4. gracilis should be considered a synonym of A. castanea. Arr. XXXI.—Contributions to the Entomology of New Zealand. By Prof. F. W. Hurron, of the Otago University. [Read before the Otago Institute, 14th October, 1879.| I have been able—thanks to the kindness of Mr. Butler, of the British Museum—to name more correctly our collection of Lepidoptera ; conse- quently I am now able to state correctly the names of some of the insects referred to doubtfully in that paper, and also to add descriptions of a few more caterpillars. VA FLOCCOSA, Walker (?). This should be D. scabra, Walker. * Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. IIL, p, 38. Hurron.— Contributions to the Entomology of New Zealand. 278 DECLAVA nicrosparsa, Butler. Caterpillar. —Smooth ; skin crumply, with a row of pectinated tufts on each side. Two pairs of pro-legs, in addition to the claspers; a small tubercle on the penultimate segment, over the last spiracle. A few black hairs on the back. Upper surface variegated with green and brownish purple; under surface green, more or less mottled with white; spiracles yellow, with black margins. Length, 1 inch. Feeds on Aristotelia. Nrrocris comma, Walker. This should be N. plusiata. Evpnrxr rwsrowrs, Walker (?). This should be Xylina ustistriga, Walker. Hapena LIGNIFUSCA, Walker. This should be H. debilis, Butler. HapENA mutans, Walker. Caterpillar.—D ull green, more or less tinted with pink. Skin smooth, with a very few short hairs. Below, green. A dark irregular mark through the spiracles. Head, light brown. The moth came out on October 8th. BoaRMIA DEJECTARIA. Eggs of this species, laid 14th May, 1879, were green. HyPERYTHRA ARENACEA, Butler. Caterpillar.—Light green with a narrow white line on each side, which is shaded with red on the upper side. Length, $ inch. HYPERYTHRA PANAGRATA, Butler. Caterpillar.—Light green, marbled all over with light pink, which colour forms a decided line over the spiracles; a pair of brown spots on each segment. Spiracles bright orange. Feeds on Aristotelia. CIDALIA SCHISTARIA. Caterpillar.—Dwull green with white, more or less black-edged, band down each side. A thin central white line on the back, and a narrow yellow line half-way between it and the lateral white band. Head dull green. Skin smooth. Hatched 27th November. LamENTIA SEMISIGNATA, Walker. This should be Coremia rosearia. LazENTIA COROULARIA, Guenée (?). This should be L. punctilineata, Walker. PSEUDOCOREMIA LUPINATA, Felder. Caterpillar.—Olivaceous brown ; the first segment greenish. A few reg black hairs. A large dorsal papilla on the eighth segment. Moth hatched on May 6th. 274 Transactions.— Zoology. Hewastia cHaRYBDIS, Butler. Caterpillar.—Black, smooth, with a more or less interrupted white line down each side. Head brown. Length, 4 inch. Moth hatched 17th November. This species feeds upon Veronica salicifolia. The colours are variable, and sometimes it is reddish. Kourrrecta mpicatarta, Walker (?). This should be Cidaria muscosata, Walker. ConEMIA RoBUSTARIA, Walker (?). ; This should be Phibalapteryx rivularis, Butler. PHIBALAPTERYX UNDULIFERA, Butler. Caterpillar.—Brown, with a few scattered brown hairs. A single tubercle on the segment in front of the pro-legs. Feeds on Leptospermum ericoides. The moth comes out in November and December. CRYPTOLECHIA GALACTINA, Felder. Chrysalis.—Pale sea-green ; white below. Upper surface finely granu- lated, the granules arranged in rows. Abdomen keeled, with a median row of glandular hairs. Superior surface of the abdomen with black hairs, the inferior with white hairs. Found on Myrtus bullata. The moth came out in March. Cuienias EGREGIA, Felder. Reise der Novara, Lepidoptera, Pl. 181, f. 24. There is a specimen of this moth in the Museum collection. I found it in a box with the other New Zealand moths when I took over the Museum, and consequently I have no reason to doubt the correctness of the locality. Felder gives it from South Australia. Arr. XXXII.—Contributions to the Calenterate Fauna of New Zealand. By Professor F. W. Hurton, of the Otago University. [Read before the Otago Institute, 14th October, 1879.] SIPHONOPHORA. Diphyes appendiculata, Eschsch. Acal., p. 188, pl. 17, £. 7; Lesson, Aca- lèphes, p. 447. Found occasionally on the coast near Dunedin. Sarcoconus imbricatus, Quoy and Gaimard, Voy. Astrolabe, Zoologie, IV., P- 71, pl. 3, f. 13 and 15 ; Lesson, Acalèphes, p. 479. Physophora australis, Quoy and Gaimard, Voy. Astrolabe, Zoologie, IV p- 57, pl. 1, f. 19-21 ; Lesson, Acaléphes, p. 507. Not uncommon on the coast near Dunedin. d Hvrrox.— Contributions to the Calenterate Fauna of New Zealand. 275 Physalia megalista, Peron et Lesueur, Voy., 2nd ed., pl. 59, f. 1; Lesson, Acaléphes, p. 558. Abundant on the coasts of the North Island, rare near Dunedin Velella pacifica, Eschsch. Ac., p. 174, No. 8, pl. 15, f. 4; Lesson, Acaléphes, p. 578. Abundant on the coasts of the North Island. I have never found it near Dunedin LucERNARIDA. Lucernaria campanulata, Lamouroux. Johnston, British Zoophytes, p A specimen collected by Mr. R. Gillies, at Brighton, near Dunedin, answers very well to the description of this species. ZOANTHARIA. Diactis, gen. nov Column smooth, divided into two portions, of which the upper is retractile into the lower. Tentacles numerous, subulate, arranged in many rows. This new genus belongs to the family Antheade. Actinia nivea, Lesson (Voy. Coquille, Zoology, chap. xiv., p. 81, pl. IIL, f. 8), from Peru, pro- bably belongs to it. D. crocata, sp. nov. Column: Lower portion longer than broad, expanded at the base, con- tracted in the middle, pale yellowish brown with numerous white longitu- dinal streaks; upper portion shorter and narrower than the lower, yellowish orange, very faintly streaked with lighter, and getting brown towards the disc. Disc expanded, as broad as the lower portion of the column, circular, concave, yellow-orange. Tentacles numerous, half the diameter of the disc in length, and of the same colour. Mouth small, elongated, white. Port Chalmers, a single specimen on Boltenia australis. The body of this animal varies remarkably in form, and is constantly changing its shape. When normally expanded the column is about an inch long. The tentacles are not very sensitive, but can be retracted with the upper part of the column into the lower part. Peachia carnea, sp. nov.. Column flesh colour; semi-transparent with pale longitudinal lines, con- tracted below the mouth, and again about one-third from the posterior end, but the form is variable; anus large and conspicuous. Disc pale flesh-colour, rayed with brown. Mouth raised, surrounded by a brown-banded ring, on one side a number of small papille. Tentacles twelve, rather longer than the diameter of the dise, simple, pale flesh-colour with about five brown, often chevroned, bands on the upper surface. 276 Transactions.— Zoology. Length about 12 inch. A single specimen picked up on the Ocean Beach, Dunedin. Leiopathes glaberrima, Esper. Pflanzenthiere, II., p. 160, Gorg. pl. 9; Milne- Edwards, Coralliaires I., p. 322. A large species of Leiopathes, closely resembling L. glaberrima, is found on the West Coast of the South Island. There is in the Museum a frag- ment, more than two feet long, from Martin's Bay, but as the coenenchyma is totally absent, it is impossible to identify it. Conocyathus zealandia, Duncan, Pro. Zool. Soc., 1876, p. 431. Flabellum rubrum, Quoy and Gaimard, Voy. Astrolabe, IV., p. 188, pl. 14, f. 5-9; Milne-Edwards, Coralliaires II., p. 96. Cylicia rubeola, Quoy and Gaimard, l.c., IV., p. 197, pl. 15, f. 12-15; Milne-Edwards, l.c., IL., p. 607. Cylicia smithii, Milne-Edwards, l.c., II., p. 608. Cylicia huttoni, Tenison- Woods, P.L.S. of New South Wales, II., p. 182, BELL Cylicia vacua, Tenison- Woods, l.c., III., p. 184, pl. 12, f. 4. Polyphyllia pelvis, Quoy and Gaimard, l.c., IV., p. 185, pl. 20, f. 8-10; Milne-Edwards, l.c., III., p. 26, pl. on., f. 1. Cenopsammia coccinea, Lesson, Milne-Edwards, 1l.c., IIL., p. 126. Cenopsammia gaimardi, Milne-Edwards, l.c., III., p. 128. Cænopsammia urvillei, Milne-Edwards, 1.c., III., p. 128. ALCYONARIA, Capnella imbricata, Quoy and Gaimard, l.c., IV., p. 281, pl. 28, f. 8; Milne-Edwards, l.c., I., p. 124; Gray, A. N. H., 4 Series, ILI., p. 129. Lobularia aurantiaca, Lamarck. Quoy and Gaimard, l.c., IV., p. 277, pl. 22, f. 16-18; Milne-Edwards, l.c., I., p. 128. Primonella australasie, Gray, P.Z.8., 1849, p. 146, pl. 2, f. 8-9; Cat. Lithophytes in Brit. Mus., p. 50; Verrill, Bull. U.S. Museum, 1876, No. 3, p. 76. Anthopodium anstrale, Verrill, Bull. U.S. Mus., 1876, 8, p. 76. Bl our ; on Primonella australasia. Rhipidogorgia cribrum, Valenciennes. Milne-Edwards, Lc., I., p. 175. Rhipidogorgia arenata, Valenciennes. Milne-Edwards, l.c., I., p. 176. CTENOPHORA. Eschscholthia dimidiata, Lesson, Ann. Sc. Nat., V., p. 254; Acaléphes, p. 102. Hurton.—Additions to the List of New Zealand Worms. 277 Art. XXXIII.— Additions to the List of New Zealand Worms. By Prof. F. W. Hurron, of the Otago University. [Read before the Otago Institute, 14th October, 1879.] TURBELLARIA, Geoplana moseleyi, sp. nov. Sumare of the body, as in G. traversii. Mouth situated behind the middle; generative orifice half way between it and the posterior extremity. Eyes numerous round the anterior end, forming a line which expands into two patches on each side. Upper surface dark grey, speckled with white, bounded on the sides by a lateral stripe of brown; a broad dorsal stripe, orange, margined with brown, the brown separated from the orange by an interrupted narrow black line; lower surface brownish white Dunedin, in the bush, indes dead trees. The body is covered externally with very delicate cilia, which require a 4 objective to see. Genus Rhynchodemus, Leidy. Body much elongated. Eyes two. Mouth cylindrical, elongate. Ex- ternal longitudinal muscles feebly developed. Ovaries simple, near the anterior EPs of the body. Lateral organs distinct. R. testaceus, sp. n Body dicia: Tr tapering to an acute point at either end; broadest part behind the centre; upper surface convex, finely Gabaverely striated; lower surface flat, without any ambulacral line. Eyes none. Mouth about two-thirds of the whole length from the anterior end; gene- rative orifice half way between it and the posterior end. Upper surface cherry-red to brick-red ; margin and ventral surface yellow. Length some- times three inches. Dunedin and Wellington, under stones, or in the ground. I have not been able to detect either eyes or cilia on this species. I refer it provisionally only to Rhynchodemus, in the absence of full informa- tion about the genera of ‘land Planarians. NEMERTIDEA. Genus Borlasia, Oken. Body long, sub-cylindrical or flattened, obtuse at the extremities ; head simple, no eyes; proboscis terminal, with a longitudinal pit on mE. side ; mouth inferior, longitudinal, not RETEN reproductive orifice in a tubercle on the side of the mouth. B. nova-zealandie, Quoy and Gaimard, Voy. Astrolabe, Zoology, IV., p. 290, pl. 24, f. 15-19. Length about three inches, flat, pointed posteriorly, the head widened, heart-shaped, united to the body by a short neck, on which there are many 278 Transactions.— Zoology. strie of an intense reddish brown. The mouth is a long slit, very delicate, without any lateral pits. Body reddish brown above, darker on the middle line ; below yellow with indications of the intestinal canal, on each side of which there is a vascular system represented by two vessels with lateral ramifications. (Q. and G.) Bay of Islands. GEPHYREA. Genus Phascolosoma, Müller. Skin papillose ; proboscis with cylindrical tentacles. P. annulata, sp. nov. Body papillose, cylindrical, tapering posteriorly ; pale brown, the tuber- cles darker. Proboscis nearly as long as the body, and tapering gradually into it ; posteriorly papillose, and coloured like the body ; anteriorly smooth, white, with some brown blotches; the anterior end encircled by about twelve narrow, brown, raised rings. Mouth with a ring of short blunt oral tentacles. Length, about 1 inch; breadth, :2 inches. Dunedin, and Cape Campbell (Mr. Robson). Sipunculus lutulentus, Sp. nov. Body cylindrical, narrowed posteriorly and ending in a pyriform swelling; cylindrical portion of the body smooth, faintly reticulated anteriorly, but only transversely striated posteriorly ; the posterior pyriform portion rougher, especially the caudal apex. Proboscis short, roughened, thinner than the body. Colour, pale brown. Length, nearly six inches; of proboscis, three- quarters of an inch. Breadth of anterior portion of body, :4 inch; of proboscis, :25 inch. Cape Campbell (Mr. C. H. Robson). Art. XXXIV.— Descriptions of new Star-fishes from New Zealand. By Prof. A. E. Veer. From the Trans. Connecticut Acad., 1867. Communicated by Prof. Hurron. [Read before the Otago Institute, 14th October, 1879.] Tue following interesting species of New Zealand Star-fishes were sent from Peru by Mr. F. H. Bradley, to whom they were given for our Museum by Henry Edwards, Esq. They afford a partial illustration of the little-known Echinoderm fauna of the Southern Ocean. They contrast strongly with those of the Northern Hemisphere. Celasterias, Verrill. Large star-fishes with 4 rows of ambulacral suckers, and large swollen rays (eleven in the tpyical species) which are free to near the base, and are VznnILL.— Descriptions of new Star-fishes from New Zealand. 279 united beneath by a group of inter-radial plates. Inter-ambulacral plates united directly to the first row of ventral plates, and these to a second row of larger plates without the intervention of open spaces like those seen in Asterias. Dorsal surface with large, strong, imbricated, irregularly arranged ossicles or plates, bearing short, very numerous spines. This species is more closely allied to Asterias (Asteracanthion) than to Heliaster, and approaches still nearer to Stichaster, but appears very distinct from either. The excessive development of the abactinial system over the ambulacral is its most remarkable characteristic. In this respect it con- trasts strongly with the next genus. The form and general aspect is that of Solaster. CoeLASTERIAS AUSTRALIS, Verrill. Rays eleven, in the only specimen seen, large, inflated, rounded, taper- ing rapidly to the end. Disk of moderate size, swollen; radius of disk to length of rays, measuring from the centre, as 2: 6. The triangular inter- radial space beneath is occupied by a cluster of irregular stout plates, mostly without spines. Ambulacral grooves relatively narrow and shallow, the pores small and crowded, in four well-marked rows. The inter-ambu- lacral plates usually bear alternately one and two spines, which are long and rather slender towards the mouth, but short, thick, and obtuse towards the end of the ray, and much crowded in indistinct rows. The next row of plates is united directly to these, and the plates are small, longest length- wise of the ray, and each bears a short, thick, spine but little larger than the preceding, and forming a regular, rather open row. Exterior to these is another ventral row of large, strong, imbricated, prominent plates, each bearing at its summit two very thick, short, obtuse spines, much larger than the inter-ambulacral ones, and arranged in a single row, and on their ex- ternal side each plate usually supports two or more short, rounded, much smaller spines, the largest of which usually form a regular row. The plates of the first lateral row are much elongated transversely to the ray, imbri- cated and strong, and so united to the ventral as to leave large openings between; each bears about twelve small, short, rounded, clavate spines, which are placed along the plates in single or double rows transverse to the ray. The plates of the median dorsal row have a similar form, and bear a similar transverse row of spines, which are somewhat larger. Between these and the first row of lateral plates the plates are irregular in form and arrangement, but short and imbricated, with unequal openings between, forming about five indistinct rows, all covered with groups of short sub- globular spines, giving an even appearance to the surface, but with large vacant spaces between. Madreporic plate, small, of fine texture, situated a little nearer to the centre of the disk than its edge. Minor pedicellarix few, 280 Transactions.— Zoology. at the bases of the spines and on the spaces between, longer than broad, obtuse, somewhat compressed, constricted near the base. A few major pedicellarix, scattered on the dorsal surface, and on the inter-radial surface beneath, are much larger and stouter, with enlarged bases and obtuse tips. Greatest diameter, 11 inches ; disk, 4; width of rays at base, 1:25. Auckland, New Zealand.—H. Edwards. Coscinasterias, Verrill. Star-fishes with many rays, which are elongated, slender, and united only at the base, without inter-radial plate beneath. Disk small. Ambu- laera broad, highly developed, suckers very numerous, in four rows. Spines prominent, arranged in longitudinal rows on the rays. Dorsal surface with large scattered pedicellaris. Madreporie plate large, irregular, often with several accessory ones placed irregularly on various parts of the disk. Dorsal plates (ossicles) arranged much as in Asterias. The excessive development of the rays and ambulacral system, com- pared with the disk or central cavity, is the most characteristic feature of this genus. The Asterias aster, Gray, probably belongs to this genus, but is too imperfectly described for identification. OSCINASTERIAS MURICATA, Verrill. Rays nine to eleven, slender tapering, rounded above, flat below owing to the width of the ambulacra, narrowed at the base, five to seven times as long as the radius of the disk, which is small. Ambulacral furrows shallow and broad, with very numerous small suckers, crowded in four rows. Inter- ambulacral plates thin, somewhat imbricated, connected with the lateral plates by a row of small, stout ossicles, which alternate with small rounded pores. Each inter-ambulacral plate usually bears a long, slender, tapering spine; these are arranged in a single close row. External to these is a row of distant, longer, and stouter cylindrical spines, arising singly from the connecting ossicles between the inter-ambulacral and ventral plates. The latter are strong and imbricated, each usually bearing two longer and stouter blunt spines, which form a crowded double row, along the sides of the arm. Ossicles of the upper surface very stout, bearing strong, acute spines, which are arranged in about five open rows, the median and two external alone reaching the base of the ray; those of the median row are somewhat larger, and all are surrounded by close wreaths of minute pedicel- larie. On the disk they are smaller and loosely scattered, often obtuse. The major p ig are numerous, scattered over the whole dorsal surface, and between the ventral spines, and also form a row within the edge of the ambu- lacral furrow. They vary considerably in size and form upon different parts, Most of those on the dorsal surface are stout, oval, compressed, pointed, nearly twice as long as wide, about -05 inch long, while with them are 4* 11 VznniLL.— Descriptions of new Star-fishes from New Zealand. 281 others of similar form not half as large. Those in the ambulacral furrows are even longer, but more acutely pointed. The madreporie plates are variable in number and size as well as in position. One appears to be always in its normal position and near the edge of the disk, while the accessory ones are introduced at various points around the disk, but at about the same distance from the margin. Sometimes, when there are but two and the rays are in even numbers, they are directly opposite and in the same transverse plane. A specimen with eleven rays has two contiguous ones and another separated by four rays, each being composed of several pieces united. One specimen has but one large convex madreporic plate. The largest specimen is 7:5 inches in diameter across the rays, with a disk 1:25 inch in diameter; rays, ‘5 inch broad; inter-ambulacral spines, *15 inch long. Auckland, New Zealand.—H. Epwanps. AsTERINA (ASTERISEUS) REGULARIS, Verrill. Pentagonal, depressed, with the inter-radial spaces evenly coneave, and the rays short, broad and acute; greatest radius to least as 15 : 10. Ambu- lacral pores large; inter-ambulacral plates each with two slender acute spines, forming a single row. Those near the mouth larger, obtuse, and flattened. Ventral plates of the first row stout and prominent, each bearing a conical, acute spine, twice as large as the preceding. Exterior to these the ventral or inter-radial plates are flattened or imbricated, diminishing in size as they recede from the centre, each bearing an acute conical spine; these diminish in size like the plates, the larger ones being about as thick as the inter- ambulacral spines, but shorter; near the margin these spines become very small and crowded, many of the plates bearing two. Plates of the upper surface rather large, increasing towards the centre, regularly imbricated, the free margin evenly rounded and thin, bearing near the end a cluster of five to nine very small, nearly equal spines ; towards the centre the plates become less regular in form and unequal in size, the larger ones often bearing twelve or fourteen spines in a transverse cluster. Madreporic plate large and prominent, at about one-third of the distance from the centre to the margin. The large dorsal pores are in groups on the sides and within the bases of the rays, arranged in about four rows, which run parallel with the median line of the rays, with from six to twelve pores in a row. A few irregularly arranged pores "between adjacent rays connect these groups. Colour, when dried, dark olive green above, yellow below. From centre to end of ray, 1:5 inches; to edge of disk, :8. Auckland, New Zealand.—H. Epwazps. ASTROPECTEN EDWARDSII, Verrill. Rays five, long, regularly tapering, acute, about four-and-a-half times as long as the radius of the disc. Ambulacra broad, inter-ambulacral plates 29 282 Transactions.— Zoology. angular, imbricated, each bearing a cluster of three or four slender spines on the inner edge, and two or three smaller ones on the outer angle, not forming regular rows. Ventral plates densely covered with minute rough spines, each having also a central series of sharp spines, the inner ones very small, increasing ontwardly to the external, marginal ones, which are strong, sharp, and slightly curved upward, + inch long. The lower mar- ginal plates are opposite the upper, and project considerably beyond them. The latter are elevated and narrow, twenty-eight on each side of a ray, the two at the angle between the rays much higher and larger, covered like the rest with rough rounded granules, and each surmounted by a stout, blunt tubercle. All the others, except the next two, bear a similar, much smaller tubercle, decreasing regularly in size to the end of the ray. The two next the basal one of each ray are thinner than the rest, and without a tubercle. Paxille largest along the centre of the rays, presenting a crowded even surface. Length of ray from centre 2:6 inches, radius of disc *6, width of ray at base -7, of median space :4. Auckland, New Zealand.—H. Epwanps. OPpHIARACHNA MACULATA, Verrill.* A large yellowish brown species, with stout arms, finely spotted with darker on the upper surface. Radius of disk to that of arms as 1 : 9 or 10. Disk large and thick, the inter-radial regions swollen and a smaller lobe bordering each side of the arms at base; upper surface and inter-radial spaces below covered throughout with small, closely crowded, rounded, or slightly polygonal granules; radial shields not visible; at the base of each arm a few naked, imbricated, unequal scales. Mouth-shields broad cordate, broader than long, the inner end obtusely rounded, the sides slightly in- curved, the broad outer end emarginate. The accessory plates outside the mouth-shields either two and nearly equal, or three and unequal, in the same specimen ; when there are two they form together a narrow, slightly oblong ellipse, much narrower than the mouth-shields; when there are three, the middle one has a broad, rounded triangular form, and the two lateral pieces are small, unequal, and irregular in size and form. Mouth- papille seven or eight on each side of the mouth, the inner one elongated, irregularly oval, somewhat pointed ; the next much larger than the others, broader than long, somewhat quadrilateral and irregular, the outer edge narrower and flattened ; the third a little longer than the first, irregular in form, somewhat pointed at each end; the three or four following are a little smaller, and about equal in size and similar in form, rather oblong, some- From the Pro. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., Vol. XIL, April 7th, 1869, p. 388. VERRILL.— Descriptions of new Star-fishes from New Zealand. 288 what irregular and wedge-shaped, the outer edge being flattened, those towards the centre a little shorter; these are frequently followed by a small rounded one, which is sometimes wanting; the last one is short and rounded. The narrow space between the mouth-papille and mouth-shields is covered with small rounded granules, except about opposite the first, where the side shields are partly exposed. The teeth have been much injured, but there appear to be five, which are stout, broad, the lower ones somewhat squarish, with rounded angles when seen from above, the end flattened, or wedge- shaped, truncate or bevelled. The arms are well rounded, stout at base, regularly tapering to the ends, but not becoming slender. Under arm-plates eight-sided, slightly overlapping, the first eight or ten broader than long, followed by a number that are as long as broad, the length gradually in- creasing, so that at the twenty-fifth plate the length is decidedly greater than the breadth. Inner tentacle scales oblong, shorter than the arm-plates, toward the disk very broad and stout, truncate, farther out gradually becom- ing more slender and pointed; outer tentacle scale very short and broad, about half as long as the inner; those at the base of the arms broader than long, the inner side and outer end nearly rectilinear, the articulated edge rounded. Upper arm-plates very broad, and comparatively short, the breadth equal to about five times the length ; the outer edge with a slight notch or emargination ; many of the plates are irregularly broken into two or three pieces. Two arm-spines on the first plate, three on the second, four on the third, five on the fourth, seven on the fifth, eight on the sixth, nine on the seventh, ten on the eighth, and eleven on the succeeding ones as far as the middle of the arms. These spines are closely crowded, appressed, mostly oblong, with blunt points, about two-thirds as long as the breadth of the side arm-plates; the upper ones smaller and shorter; the lowest one larger and stouter than the rest. Colour of the disk uniform yellowish brown in the dry specimen. Arms—above—brownish yellow with an orange tinge, thickly covered with small round purplish-brown spots, some of which occur also on the upper arm-spines, and upper part of the side arm-plates. Lower surface, uniform dull yellow. Radius of disk, ‘8 inch; length of arms from centre of disk, 7:25 to 8 inches; breadth of arm at base *82 ; height, -30 ; length of upper arm-plates, 08; length of middle arm-spines, ‘05; length of third under arm-plate, -07 ; breadth, °09 ; length of tenth, -07 ; breadth, 08; length of mouth-shield, - *16 ; breadth, -21; length of second mouth-papille, ‘06; breadth, -08. New Zealand.—Onas. Cuzrver, 1848 (Coll. Essex Institute). 284 Transactions.— Zoology. Art. XXXV.—On the Habits of Prionoplus reticularis, with Diagnoses of the Larva and Pupa. By Captain T. Broun. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 2nd June, 1879.] Tue subject I propose dealing with will be rendered more intelligible, and perhaps interesting, if I endeavour to convey something like a clear idea of what is meant by the terms employed by naturalists to designate the meta- morphoses of insects. This course will seem all the more advisable when it becomes known that I possess specimens of the larve and pups of other species of Coleoptera, which I hope to describe in subsequent papers. A beetle originates from a minute, soft, oblong or oval egg instinctively deposited by the parent in such a situation as will ensure a sufficient supply of wholesome food, the mode, time, and place of deposition being liable to considerable variation, and ordinarily succeeded by the death of the female, whose chief purpose in life would thus appear to have been accomplished. From the egg, in course of time—varying in extent according to species, climate, or other circumstances—emerges the larva, which frequently passes a period of three, or even five years, in solid wood before it attains its full growth and becomes a pupa. It is chiefly during this stage of an insect's existence, according to the mode of life of the members of the group or genus to which it belongs, that it commits so much havoc, or proves of great service to man. The larva—the state analogous to that of the cater- pillar of the butterfly or moth, and the maggot of the common fly—is usually a fleshy grub composed of thirteen segments, of which the first forms the head, the next three the thorax, and the remaining nine the abdomen of the perfect beetle ; but two or more of these latter ultimately coalesce in such a manner that not more than five or six can be discovered in many Coleoptera. It is provided with six short legs, which are attached to the second, third, and fourth, or thoracic segments. The head is furnished with a pair of rudimentary eyes; two antennge, commonly called feelers, situated between or near the mouth or eyes; two pairs of transverse or horizontally-moving jaws, of which the upper are termed mandibles and the lower maxille, the latter ordinarily armed with feelers, called palpi; a labrum or upper lip; and a labium or lower lip, having a pair of palpi. These organs, conjointly, close the aperture of the mouth when in repose. Respiration is effected, not through the mouth, but by means of a variable number of small, often almost imperceptible orifices referred to in descrip- tions as spiracles or stigma; these are placed near the sides of the body, and communicate with internal air-tubes. In due time the larva assumes the form known to us as the pupa, which corresponds with that of the chrysalis of Lepidopterous insects. In this state the beetle is generally soft, and quite harmless—that is, it does not take Broun.—On the Habits of Prionoplus reticularis. 285 any kind of substantial nourishment, and, though inactive, is in reality undergoing important changes. Now, for the first time, may be seen the result of those marvellous transformations which have occurred since the female laid the egg, as the form and structure of the imago, or perfect insect, can clearly be traced. The beetle issues from the pupa stage during autumn or spring, in the former case generally remaining quiescent during the winter, and, in the vast majority of cases, is short-lived, appearing, indeed, to exist no longer than is necessary for the propagation of the species. It is evident, there- fore, that the imago does comparatively little injury, whilst many of the predaceous ground-beetles, which frequently live throughout the spring and summer, destroy vast numbers of insect pests. We are indebted to the microscope and the investigations of many learned naturalists for our knowledge of the anatomy of Coleoptera, the details of which, however, scarcely come within the scope of this paper. Suffice it to say, that the internal organs consist of a stomach, pouch, gizzard and gullet, for the assimilation of food, several ‘‘ hearts” united by what may be called veins for the circulation of the blood, and the air-tubes previously alluded to under the heading “larva.” The anatomical structure can only be advan- tageously studied in works specially devoted to that branch of the science ; the external form, infinite in variety, may, so far as the indigenous Coleop- tera are concerned, be studied in the volume now being published by the Colonial Government.* Many people are under the impression that a beetle “grows” considerably; that, however, is a mistake, as the ultimate size of the insect is determined in the larval state, the development depending on the quantity and suitability of the nutriment available. The foregoing remarks having, I hope, served their purpose, id est, enabled those, whose vocations have not permitted them to become entomo- logical students, to realize in their own minds something approaching an accurate conception of the nature of the forms recognized as Coleoptera, I now subjoin descriptions of the larva and pupa of Prionoplus reticularis, our largest longicorn beetle. Larva cream-coloured, sub-cylindrical, attenuated posteriorly, twenty-one lines in length, composed of thirteen very distinct segments, of which the first forms the head; the second is the broadest, measuring 64 lines across; the next four are the shortest, and about equal in breadth to the second; the others padíany inerease in length, and the mie is rather broader than the immediately preceding ones. i less te, parts of the mouth being pitchy-brown, and is seemingly capable of being retracted within the second segment; it is rounded and densely ciliated in front, the line of demarcation between its anterior and back parts is obvious, the front angles of the latter portion are formed, just behind the lower part of the base of the mandibles, by distinct tubercles; there are four other, but much smaller, elevations * Coleoptera of New Zealand, by Capt T. Broun, 286° Transactions.— Zoology. near the middle of that line, the two anterior distant, the others placed a little further back only separated by the dorsal groove; behind these there is a curved ridge ex- ean a each antenna and the middle, but not attaining the medial furrow ; the space behind is more or less rugose and sparsely hispid, with a few small punctures behind each ridge. The mandibles are large and triangular; the maxillary palpi are robust, four-jointed, abruptly decreasing in bulk, so that the terminal joint becomes quite minute; the labial palpi are tri-articulate, smaller than, but similar in form to the maxillary, but with their apical joint rather less abbreviated; the antenne are very small, not even as long as the labial palpi, with four joints, of which the last is almost aciculate, and their joints are evidently capable of retraction one within the other. The second segment is larger than the following two united, having near each side a large, slightly-raised, tri- angular space terminating in a carina, which extends forwards beyond the middle; the disc is den coarsely rugose, but the sculpture becomes much finer towards the front, where there are some deep wrinkles. On each of the succeeding segments, though less evident on the third and last, there is a large transverse space, slightly elevated, but flattened above, ee is distinctly wrinkled; the surface of these segments (3-13) is covered with minute, spine-like elevations, whilst the extremity of the last three is more or less coarsely rugose. The sculpture of the under side of the segments corresponds, more or less, with that of the upper. The spiracles are transversely oval, nine in number on each side, the first, situated on the third segment, is twice as large as any of the others, which are located on the fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelf segments, The legs, attached to the second, third, and fourth segments, are very short, four-jointed, and very similar in structure to the palpi, but having the last articulation more slender and slightly curved. The larve, when immersed in alcohol, become discoloured, so that after the lapse of a few months they become of a pale brown; the size varies, the measurements given above are applicable to full grown examples only. The pupa resembles the larva in colour, is about 21 lines in length by 7 or 8 in breadth in its widest parts, and consists of twelve dorsal segments, the thirteenth being retracted to form the generative organs, whilst the first is represented by the head; it is subject to the modifications observable in the larva when preserved in spirits. The eyes are sometimes discernible, but are covered by a film; the elytra, proceeding from the third segment, are obliquely folded below the body, and, to a great extent, cover the under-wings, which issue from the fourth segment; the antenne form a curve, and repose on the elytra; the four front legs are folded above these, the posterior pair below the wings. The second dorsal segment is somewhat similar in outline to the prothomz of the ect insect, rather uneven, and more or less transversely rugose bout half the length of the contiguous eun terminates behind in a gs: obtuse tubercle, and is also wrinkled. The fourth bears a tubercle near each side, and a median longitudinal row of small tubercular hne: which, however, become obsolete posteriorly; its surface is a little glossy and exhibits many minute, spine-like tubercles, sm however, so closely eongregated as on the remaining segments. = seventh, eighth, ninth, and enth, bear an obvious discoidal elevation, —— two almost dieci tubercles ; whilst the last, which might be termed the ak terminates in two fleshy protu- berances. The information respecting the habits of this insect may be communi- cated in this way. We will suppose the female to have selected an old Brovun.—On the Habits of Prionoplus reticularis. 287 kauri tree, with cracked or damaged bark, or one that has been recently felled, and, by means of her ovipositor, inserted a certain number of eggs which have been duly hatched. On looking at the decumbent log some time afterwards, we simply notice its weather-beaten aspect, but if we examine it more closely we will perceive some small round holes indicating to an expe- rienced eye either the presence or escape of insects. Wishing to ascertain the actual state of affairs we use our axe, or tomahawk, and, owing to the hard external crust, perhaps imagine the log to be quite sound and merely marked superficially, but by dint of a little exertion and perseverance the log is at length cut open, and I venture to assert that the sight which will then meet the eye of the beholder, if not a naturalist, or one accustomed to the ravages of insects, will convince him of the importance of the small animals whose existence, probably, had been altogether ignored. I shall endeavour to describe the condition of such a log, one that I cut open at Parua, near Whangarei harbour. Its external appearance was such as has been indicated, but a little below the surface there were many large cavities about the size of a man’s finger, occupied by specimens of the beetle itself more or less mature, all in positions best calculated to facilitate their escape ; a little deeper in, I found pups and larve indiscriminately intermingled in a substance more nearly resembling closely-packed, moist sawdust than anything else, but not at all like the fine timber we would expect to see in a kauri log; on cutting still deeper, or right through, the same scene prevailed, varied only by the absence of the beetle and pupa; here and there might be noticed pieces of what might be termed wood, but with the larve assiduously engaged in devouring it; I could almost have kicked the whole to pieces. That log, a settler informed me, had been on the ground some eighteen months, but the eggs must have been deposited, I suspect, about two years previously. Many, no doubt, will exclaim that this is an exceptional case ; the sceptic, however, need only do what I have often done, go into the forest and examine a log for himself, and he will return, to use an oft-quoted phrase, ** a sadder and a wiser man.” It must not be supposed that the ligniperdous proclivities of Prionoplus reticularis are confined to the Dammara australis, or that its ravages are unmixed evil; I have seen its larve at work in rimu and kahikatea logs, and, in a semi- tropical country, wherein the people, apparently, can afford to allow large quantities of valuable timber to go to ruin, the insect, conjointly with others, devours what would otherwise decay and, during the process, engender serious diseases. Before leaving this subject, it might not be out of place to direct atten- tion to certain facts showing the wonderful sagacity displayed by the insect. First of all in the deposition of the eggs ; then, for the purpose of effectual 288 Transactions.— Zoology. concealment, the newly-hatched larva eating its way to the centre of the log ; but, when approaching maturity, boring towards the surface again, in order that when it emerges from the pupa state the beetle may readily effect its exit, which, of course, can only be done by eating its way out. I regret my inability to place before you a portion of the log, as I could not have done so without an assistant to cross-cut a section, and it would then have had to be carried a distance of five miles to my house, and very carefully too, to be of much service in illustrating my remarks. Type specimens of the larva and pupa, in alcohol, accompany this paper, so that they may be preserved in the Museum, where the perfect insect also may be seen. Art. XXXVI.—Deseription of the Larva of Pericoptus truncatus, with Observations as to Habitat. By Captain T. Broun. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 2nd June, 1879.] Tue larva of this beetle may be said to be of an elliptieally cylindrie form, being somewhat contracted near the middle, and with its first and anal seg- ments, especially the former, narrower than the adjacent ones. Its upper surface is moderately convex transversely, the lower almost plane, but wrinkled. If preserved in its natural posture, the ventral segments may be seen to be considerably ineurved, so that the hinder part of the body appears to be almost at right angles to the anterior. The lateral margins, though uneven, are well defined. The body is moderately soft, but the head and claws are decidedly corneous. ` The size varies according to the degree of maturity ; my two specimens measure 17 lines in length by 74 in breadth, and 15 x 6 respectively, but if straightened, the larger must have about 14 lines added to its length. Its colour is uncertain ; usually a pale yellow or dirty white, but be- . coming more or less livid; the head, however, is constantly castaneous, with piceous mandibles, the claws also arë pitchy, and the stout bristles borne by the legs and certain portions of the body are of about the same chestnut hue as the head. Sometimes the larva is irregularly spotted with blue, but the colour, as previously indicated, generally degenerates into a brownish white, with livid blotches. The body is apparently divided into fourteen segments, all of which, except the first and three last, are strongly wrinkled transversely, so much so, that some care will be required in determining the difference between the real sutures and the folds; the three terminal are by far the largest; of Broun.—On Pericoptus truncatus. 289 these the intermediate is the most bulky, though the apical is actually longer than it, and tapers somewhat towards the extremity. The head, including the mandibles, clypeus, and epistome, is more or less irregularly rugose, its sculpture, however, becoming finer towards the base, where there is an obvious longitudinal groove. The second and three terminal segments are almost glabrous, the intervening ones being more or less studded with short spiniform bristles, here and there intermingled with rather long hair- like bristles ; these latter are also distributed over the surface of the other segments, the apex of the last, moreover, bears more and coarser spines than are to be seen elsewhere. The under-surface bears many bristles, but is devoid of spines. The maxillary palpi, including the basal articulation, are four-jointed, the joints are cylindrical, the terminal being the longest and slightly acuminate. The antenne are more than twice the length of the palpi, formed of four distinct articulations, the socket not being reckoned ; the true second joint is a good deal longer than the others, and, like the first, cylindrical, but obliquely cut away at the end; the third joint is so placed as to appear slightly forked, and is prolonged beyond the point of insertion of the apical joint, which, therefore, is quite furcate, and has two, more or less evident, indentations at each side. The clypeus is transversal, nearly truncate, and densely ciliated anteriorly. The eye is quite rudimentary, being represented by a small oval elevation close to the antennal orbit. The legs are rather long and robust, bent, coarsely hispid, and four-jointed, with an additional articulation terminating in a large, broad, horny claw: the second joint is short, and, doubtless, merges in the tibia of the perfect insect. The spiracles are situated at the sides of the second, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth segments. In my second and smaller example, the under-side is roughly carinated longitudinally, and the terminal joint of one antenna seems as if cleft to its base. On examining the joint carefully, I notice that the inner side of one part is concave, and, consequently, adapted to receive the other. This peculiarity of structure, most likely accidentally exposed to view, indicates the presence of a rudimentary lamellated club, normally concealed by a more or less tough film instead of the usual larval joint. This larva may be met with occasionally in the loose sand of the sea- beach, under logs whose buried portion has become somewhat decomposed ; but whether a certain stage of decay must have been reached before the larva resorts to the log, or the female for the deposition of the egg, I am, as yet, unable to state positively; this much, however, is certain, that the process of decomposition is greatly accelerated by the larva which gnaws into the wood itself. The masticated wood having passed through its 30 290 Transactions.— Zoology. body, and accumulated around the cavity in the sand or debris usually occu- pied by the larva, would be apt to lead one to suppose, at first sight, that the wood must have been in a decayed state previous to the insects’ recourse to it; experienced observers particularly might be deceived in this matter, knowing, as they do, that the larve of the Dynastide repair to decomposing vegetable matter as their natural food, their services being peculiarly valu- able in rendering such substances innocuous. I apprehend that naturalists have still much to learn respecting the various modes of life of New Zealand insects ; preconceived notions derived from the study of the habits of what may be termed ‘old-world animals," would prove to be unreliable guides in the search for many of our species, which, to my knowledge, pass the various stages of their existence under circumstances quite at variance with cognate, or even congeneric, forms found elsewhere. I am of opinion that decayed ligneous matter is not at all a necessary means of support to this species; if that were so, the larva would be more often seen; it is nowhere common, certainly not met with in such profusion as to account for the numbers of the imago that may on certain occasions be seen strewn, dead and mutilated, along the sea-shore. Its true home is, beyond doubt, the loose drift above high-water mark. I have not been able to find the pupa, but I have frequently, especially on calm mornings, followed the tracks of the perfect insects along the beach, whereon they had been disporting during the night, and these invariably ceased amongst the looser drift-sand, into which, it must be evident, the beetles had burrowed, very deeply too, as I could never excavate a hole deep enough to reach them by hand. I was once fortunate enough to secure a living specimen, and, to place the matter beyond mere surmise, allowed him to escape from my hand, when he instantly sought refuge in the sand. At other times I notieed dead beetles belonging to this species which had not effectually secured their retreat, the hind-body being visible. Another remarkable trait remains to be noticed, that is, the extraordin- ary paucity of female specimens; of the many hundreds of dead imagos I have seen lying on the beach at various times, I can only remember having found one female!! I do not mean to imply any analogy between the habits . of Pericoptus and the Bee, beyond the touching fact of her domestic pro- clivities ; if she were not a good wife or daughter, she would surely be more frequently visible to strangers. I shall deposit an alcoholic specimen as a type of this larva in the Auckland Museum as soon as possible; the perfect insect is already there, and, when compared, they will afford a striking illustration of the metamor- phoses of a beetle. MASKELL.— On New Zealand Coccide. 291 Art. XXXVII.—Further Notes on New Zealand Coccide. W. M. MaskELr. Plate VII. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 5th June, 1879.] I mave a few new species of Coccide to describe ; but I must first correct some errors in my former paper.* I included last year amongst the Coccidæ some insects, to which I gave the names of Asterochiton and Powellia. Further investigation has shown me that these have to be eliminated. The Order Homoptera is divided into three Classes, distinguished by the number of joints of the tarsus :—1st, the Trimera, including the Aphids ; 2nd, the Dimera, including Psyllide and Aleyrodide ; and 8rd, the Monomera, or Coccidæ. In some of their stages, the 2nd and 8rd Classes much resemble each other, and my error of last year was caused in a great measure from the fact that the specimens examined presented monomerous tarsi. I have, however, since been fortu- nate enough to procure a more complete series of these insects, and must now relegate both of them to the Dimerous Homoptera, family Aleyrodide. This family is perhaps more anomalous than the Coccide, inasmuch as Aleyrodes in its earlier stages is scarcely distinguishable from Lecanium, but in the adult form widely diverges. In my Asterochiton, for instance, only the closest inspection will detect the difference ; whilst in Powellia the double claw alone (except in the last stage) renders it certainly not a Coccid. However, there is now no doubt, for the adult insects which I have collected have 2-jointed tarsi, double claws, and four broad floury wings,—characters peculiar to Aleyrodide. I have no means at present of distinguishing between my Powellia or Asterochiton and the European species of the family. Tn the absence of evidence, I leave the names as they are, eliminating the insects from the Coccide. I may remark on the extreme closeness with which the families of the Homoptera run, as it were, one into another. The gradation from Lecanium to the earlier stages of Aleyrodes is imperceptible ; Aleyrodes has many features closely resembling Psylla; and Psylla is linked intimately with Aphis. On the young shoots of Eucalyptus there is, as I said last year, an insect much resembling in some features my Powellia, and this is, I believe, a Psylla. ; My specimens of Powellia vitreo-radiata were from Discaria and Pitto- sporum. I have found, on Olearia ilicifolia, another species, wanting the long glassy fringe of the earlier stage, and having, instead, a row of lanceo- late spines. I would call this species P. doryphora. * Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XL, Art, XVI. 292 ; Transactions.— Zoology. I have also one or two slight errors to correct as to the Coccidw. In Ctenochiton spinosus the upper digitules are not, as I stated, short; they are long, fine, knobbed hairs. In Acanthococcus multispinus and in Dactylopius glaucus the lower digitules are broad, as in Lecanium. Further, the insect described by me last year under the name Diaspis gigas, is not, as I think now, a Diaspis, but belongs to the genus Fiorinia, Targioni-Tozzetti, where the pellicle of the second stage almost fills the puparium. I, therefore, as the insect appears to be new, name it Fiorinia astelia, Before hoig to describe the new species which I have obtained, I . may mention that Lecanium hesperidum seemis to be doing less damage— about Christehurch at least—than formerly. Many of the plants and hedges which I have seen nearly destroyed by this insect, are now in much better eondition. In Europe and elsewhere the ravages of this insect appear to have been intermittent, and there is no reason why the same should not be the case here. Possibly the dry seasons which we have been guisa under lately may have something to do with this. Mytilaspis pomorum, on the other hand, is increasing in numbers and destructiveness. I know of scarcely a fruit tree in our orchards (except the cherry) which is not every year being more and more covered with this seale; | and the quickset hedges are as much troubled with it as with the saw-fly larva inautumn. Minute as the apple-scale is, its immense numbers must seriously weaken and damage the trees ; and I recommend owners of orchards to employ the remedy suggested in my former paper, namely, to paint over their trees in winter with a mixture of two-thirds linseed oil to one-third kerosene. This has, to my knowledge, succeeded admirably in instances where it has been tried, as the oil insinuates itself between the bark of the tree and the puparium of the insect, and so envelopes the eggs and the young that they eannot get out, and so die. Care should, however, I believe, be taken to perform this work only at the dead of winter, when the sap is not rising, and when the tree is, so to speak, asleep. I proceed now to the description of my new species. 1. Mytilaspis phymatodidis, sp. nov. Plate VIL, fig. 1, abdomen. General appearance resembling M. pomorum, but the puparium is broader, as in M. pyriformis. 'The abdomen ends with a deepish median depression, as in Diaspis rose. There are several scaly processes on the terminal lobes, and a good many spiny hairs on the sides of the body. The usual five groups of spinnerets, and many single ones scattered on corruga- lions of the body. I have not seen the male, Masxeti.—On New Zealand Coccide. 298 My specimens were on a fern, Phymatodes billardieri, from Wellington. 2. Mytilaspis metrosideri, sp. nov. Plate VII., fig. 2, abdomen of female. Puparium white, pyriform. Female in all stages dark-coloured ; in last stage nearly black. General outline resembling M. drimydis, but the abdo- men is much sharper and more pointed, with a finely-serrated edge, ending in three minute-pointed lobes joined by a scaly process. Spinnerets in an almost continuous arch, which may be resolved into five groups; 70 or 80 openings; several single spinnerets. The rudimentary antenne can be made out. The young female has an elongated oval outline, little corrugated. The feet, digitules, antennæ, etc., resemble those of M. pomorum. The abdomen is like that of the adult, without the groups of spinnerets. I have not the male of this species. My specimens are from the rata tree. 8. Por1asPis, gen. nov. This genus is characterized by having the spinnerets in more than five groups, and in a double row, the edge of the abdomen as in Diaspis Signoret forms a genus, Leucaspis, which possesses the same character ; but it has also a fringe of spiny hairs set close together round the edge of the abdomen, which fringe is absent in Poliaspis. The puparium is white, broad. The sim fads which may reach ji inch in length, resembles in outline Mytilaspis pomorum; it is dentes greenish-white, and shows the rudimentary antenne. The abdominal ex- tremity is much jagged, with a median depression as in Diaspis rose, and with a few scattered hairs. There are eight groups of spinnerets; four, containing each from twenty to thirty orifices, are placed in opposite pairs, the fifth, with four to six orifices, being between the upper pair; above these, three other groups form an arch, the two outer ones having eight to ten openings, the middle one three to five. Many single spinnerets follow the corruga- tions of the body as in Mytilaspis cordylinidis. The male insect is of a bright scarlet or deep orange colour. The antenne, covered with longish hairs, have ten joints; the first two very short and thick ; the next five long, equal and cylindrical; the eighth and ninth somewhat shorter; the tenth fusiform and as long as the seventh. The legs are rather long; the femur thick, the tibia more slender, broaden- ing towards the tarsus, which is about one-third as long as the tibia, and narrows sharply down to the claws. Both tarsus and tibia are hairy. The 294 Transactions.— Zoology. digitules are only long fine hairs ending in minute knobs. The thoracic band occupies about half the width of the body. The abdominal spike is long and, as usual, hairy. There is indeed not much difference in the males of most species of the Diaspide. The male of Poliaspis is not greatly unlike that of Aspidiotus epidendri, or of Diaspis gigas. Poliaspis media, which I have from a Veronica and from Leucopogon fraseri, is the species alluded to in my former paper,* and which I had not then sufficiently examined. 4. Carosroua, gen. nov. (?). The insects which I have just described belong to the group Diaspides my next belongs to the group Coccide, subsection Monophlebide. In my former paper I mentioned, as characteristic of the group Coccide, a bi- or tri-articulate mentum, and in the synopsis attached to this paper I give, as a characteristic of the Monophlebide, antenne of eleven joints, a number found in no other subsection of the group. The genus Celostoma possesses this last character, but it presents the unusual feature of having a mouth formed of only a hollow opening, without any mentum, rostrum, or buccal sete. There is a subsection of the group Coccide known as ** Porphyrophora,” Brandt (Porph. polonica used to be much employed in Europe as a dye), where not only the rostrum and sets are absent, but there is absolutely in the adult female no trace of a mouth at all! In what manner Porphyro- phora contrives to extract its nourishment from the plants it lives on I do not know. The males of all Coccidex are destitute of mouths, and it may be presumed that their office is merely to impregnate the females. But how these latter, if mouthless, are enabled to live and grow fat during the period of gestation is not clearly intelligible. But as Cwlostoma possesses, at any rate, an cesophagal opening, I must include it amongst the Monophlebide ; looking on it as perhaps an intermediate genus between Monophlebus and Pophyrophora. The characters of this genus are, therefore, antenne of eleven joints in the adult female, anal tubercles wanting or indistinguishable, an entire absence of mentum, rostrum, or buccal setze, but retention of an cesophagal opening. Celostoma zealandicum, sp. nov. (?) Pl. VIL, figs. 6-13. The adult female, figs. 6, 7, is briek-red in colour, reaching }-inch in length, and rather more than }-inch in breadth at the widest part, which is toward the abdominal end. It is fat, corrugated, slug-like: there are eleven or twelve corrugations, those toward the head being the widest. It is sur- * Trans., Vol. XL, p. 203. MaskELL.—On New Zealand Coccide. 295 rounded by a thick envelope of white cotton, in which it deposits the eggs, which are oval and brick-red in colour. The antennae, fig. 9, spring from the lower side of the head and point downward; they have eleven joints, tapering from the root to the tip. They are all pretty nearly equal in length, but the fifth may be the shortest; the last joint is rounded. All the joints have several longish hairs, those on the last including some longer and thicker than the others. The anterior pair of feet are placed somewhat forward, near the base of the antenne, and the next two pairs are not widely separated from them, so that the abdominal region is equal in length to, if not somewhat longer than, the thoracic and cephalic portion. The legs, fig. 8, are black, rather short. The coxa is broad, the femur thick and strong, the tibia more slender, but thickened at the end toward the tarsus. This last is about half as long as the tibia, and tapers to the claw. I saw no digitules, but there is a short stiff bristle at each side of the root of the claw. Each joint of the legs has some hairs ; the tibia and tarsus have each, on their inner edge, a fringe of strong hairs. The trochanters are excessively developed and bear a few hairs, of which one is very much longer than the rest. As I have stated, there is no trace of a rostrum, mentum, or buccal sete, and the only sign of a mouth which I can detect is a minute orifice situate in a deep depression between the second pair of legs. Indeed, it is not without difficulty that one can discover any sign of a mouth. After maceration in potash and pressure on a glass slide I have noticed a ring surrounding this orifice of somewhat thicker substance than the rest of the skin, and I observed that all round there seemed to be converging masses of museular tissue; it may be that these, in the act of feeding, are protruded, so as to press the orifice as a sucker on the plant, being withdrawn again at The eyes are very minute, and are so placed in small hollows just behind the base of the antenne that it is not easy to discover them. They are tubercular, slightly protruding, and appear to show a central orifice. They are not, I believe, facetted. There are no anal tubercles, as in the Coccide proper, and the anus is only an oval opening in the last fold of the body without any ring or long . In the interior of the abdomen, near the anal orifice, is found a small organ which I take to be the oviduct, consisting apparently of a double tube, fig. 10; a ring of recurved spines surrounds the end of each portion, and at the tip are some long hairs. In one specimen also, I have found what I suppose to be the ovary, a long elliptical sac on a stem which ex- tends toward the base of the oviduct, and seemingly full of eggs. The body generally is flat underneath, rounded above; the corrugations generally smooth, but in some places there appear hard protruding lumps 296 Transactions. —Zoology. or callosities as of some exuded substance. The skin, as shown in fig. 10, is covered with minute hairs interspersed irregularly with circular spin- nerets. The spiracles appear to be round, as in Lecanium; the traches are very large; there are no spiracular spines. The eggs, as stated above, are brick-red in colour, oval in shape ; and I was fortunate enough to hatch out a number of the young insects. These, as shown in fig. 11, have generally the shape of the adult, and are of the same colour. The antenna, fig. 12, have six joints, of which the last is the largest; on this are several strong hairs. The eyes resemble those of the adult; as also the legs, generally ; but these latter, fig. 18, are somewhat longer, and there is no fringe on the internal edge of the tibie and tarsus. The trochanter shows the same long hair, but instead of the bristles at the claw there are two long fine knobbed digitules. The rostrum and mentum are prominent and well defined ; the latter seems to be bi-articulate ; and the setz are very long and strong (I can only make out three). The skin is covered with circular spinnerets and minute hairs, and the spinnerets are most numerous at the end of the abdomen, where also are two long hairs. The anal orifice seems to be encircled by a folded ring. Length of the young insect, about =; inch. In the second stage of its existence the insect does not generally differ from its later form, but the antennz have only nine instead of eleven joints, and the fringe of strong hairs on the inner edge of the tibia and tarsus is much less developed. It wil be seen that the antenne follow the same gradation as in the genus Icerya (described by me last year), increasing from six to nine, and lastly to eleven joints. It remains to decide the affinities of this insect. I have put notes of interrogation at the head of this description because I cannot be quite certain that Colostoma is new. The whole group of the Monophlebide requires, I think, more investigation. Most of the species are tropical, or at-least, found in out-of-the-way places, and the facilities for examination and description have been by no means great. In one genus of the group, viz., Monophlebus, Y believe that the females have never been described, and, as I have not the male of Celostoma, I cannot distinguish it from Mono- phlebus, with this exception, —that I cannot find that Monophlebus is destitute of a rostrum. In fact, Cwlostoma possesses the characters, as far as I am ^ aware, of most genera of the group. The young insect resembles Calli- pappus; the trochanters of the adult female are like Porphyrophora ; the callosities of the body resemble Drosicha. But it differs from all, and unless itis the female of Monophlebus, i& must be a new genus; but the frequency of the males of Monophlebus elsewhere, and their rarity here, MaskELL.—On New Zealand Coccide. 297 would seem to eliminate that also. Under the circumstances, especially in view of the curious mouth of the insect, I shall consider it, for the present, as new. My specimens are partly from Otago, partly from Canterbury. Those from Otago were given to me by Professor Hutton, who informs me that the insect is found there on the bark of large trees. Those from Canter- bury I found buried in the ground and in the chinks of rocks, by the Sumner Road, Lyttelton, interspersed with another curious Coccid, feeding on Muhlenbeckia, a creeping-plant growing thereabouts. The difference of habitat is, I think, not a little curious. Since writing the foregoing, I have found some specimens of the male of Calostoma, which have set at rest any doubts as to its identity. Taken in conjunction with the peculiar mouth of the female, the characters of the ` male make it impossible to consider the species otherwise than as new. It cannot be Monophlebus, as it wants the curiously protruding lobes or tassels attached to the segments of the abdomen; and it agrees with no other genus of the Monophlebide. The male is somewhat large, about 4 inch in length, and nearly $ inch from tip to tip of the wings when expanded; red or purplish in colour, with a strong red nervure along the anterior edge of the wings, which have also a bluish purple tinge all over. The eyes are large, prominent, and nu- merously facetted, a character of the Monophlebide. The antenne have ten joints; the two first short and thick, the remainder long and thin, somewhat diminishing to the extremity ; each joint with many long hairs, but no distinct nodosities as in Leachia (Signoret). The feet are long with a somewhat large trochanter ; femur, tibia, and tarsus not thick, the tibia has a dilation at the extremity next the tarsus; both tibia and tarsus have a fringe, on their internal edge, of strong spines (as in the female) also several hairs. Claw long and thin, one pair of digitules which are only ' long fine hairs; on the trochanter, as in the female, is one hair much longer than the rest. From the term ** Monophlebide” there should be only one nervure in the wings, but, as M. Signoret remarks, this is a doubtful character; in Celostoma the nervure appears to me to branch twice at least. The abdomen is corrugated, and on each corrugation are many short fine hairs interspersed with small circular marks; but there is no fringe as in Callipappus, Guérin. The sheath of the penis has the form of double oval valves ; the penis itself protrudes as in Callipappus (and in some Dactylopii) as a semi-transparent, soft, white tube several times folded, covered with minute hairs pointing backwards. There is a minute haltere of peculiar shape (like Porphyrophora), but, I think, without a seta. I have no doubt, after examination of the male together with the cha- racters of the female given above, that Celostoma agrees with — the 298 Transactions.— Zoology. known and described species of the Monophlebide, and must be therefore new. 5. Enrococcus, Targioni-Tozzetti. I described this genus last year, having then one species of it. Since then I have found another, to which I give the name of Eriococcus hoherie, sp. nov. Plate VII., figs. 14-90. : The sac is, as usual, white and cottony, but for a great part of the year is covered with the black fungus so commonly accompanying Coccide, so that it looks only like a small gall or excrescence on the bark. About mid- summer, individuals may be found which are completing or have just com- pleted their ovisac, which then shows white in the crevices of the bark. Many such sacs are usually clustered together. The eggs are very minute, oval, red. The young insect (fig. 14) is about zi; inch long, red in colour, corrugated, tapering from the cephalic to the abdominal extremity, where it ends in two anal tubercles, each bearing a long seta and some hairs. Antenne (fig. 15) of six joints, all nearly equal, with a few hairs, mostly on the last joint. Foot (fig. 16) with tarsus a little longer than the tibia; digitules all fine hairs, the upper pair rather long, the lower pair about equalling the claw. The adult female (fig. 17) is red in colour, about sl; inch in length, gene- rally resembling in shape the young insect, and ending in anal tubercles with sete. Antenna (fig. 18) of six joints, somewhat shorter than in the young. Foot (fig. 19) apparently atrophied; the tibia is very short, and the femur has a swollen appearance ; the digitules are short fine hairs. The anal tubercles (fig. 20) seem at first sight only two; but after maceration in potash are found to be four, of which two bear long sete. All have spiny hairs, and between them is the anal ring with, I think, eight hairs. Eyes very small, black. There are some scattered minute hairs on the body, and a number of very small round spinnerets. On the last corrugations, just above the anal tubercles, these spinnerets increase greatly in number and size, and are intermixed with spiny hairs (fig. 20). This insect, from the bark of Hoheria, on the hills above Lyttelton, is, I think, new. The genus Eriococcus is not much removed from Acanthococcus, Signoret; and the species of both are somewhat confused. Last year I described, under the names of A. multispinus and E. araucarie, insects which seemed to me to differ from European species; and so, now, E, hoherie differs, I believe, from E. thymi, Signoret; but it requires some close investigation to distinguish between them; still, the European species has broad digitules, and a small tubercle at the base of the antenna, which I do not find in my specimens from Lyttelton. MaskELL.—On New Zealand Coccide. 299 I may conclude this paper with a synoptical list of New Zealand Coccidm as far as I have described them as yet; excluding all those species, chiefly European, which abound in our gardens and greenhouses, with the excep- tion of Mytilaspis pomorum, Lecanium hesperidum, and one or two other representative species, | ORDER—HOMOPTERA, CLASS—MONOMERA, Family—Coccide. Group I.—Duspiwz. Insects enclosed in, or covered by, a test or puparium, composed partly of discarded pellicles of earlier stages, partly of secreted fibres; females, apodous in later stages. 1. Mytilaspis. | Puparium elongated; discarded pellicles at one end; not more than 5 groups of spinnerets. 8. M. pomorum «e xd iis European. b. M. pyriformis — ... phá i New Zealand. c. M. cordylinidis ... - Sue New Zealand. d. M. drimydis "i xe fee New Zealand. e. M. phymatodidis ... A zi New Zealand. Í M.metrosideri — ... a ES: New Zealand. . Poliaspis. Puparium elongated ; discarded pellicles at end; more than 5 groups of spinnerets. ve ias New Zealand. 9. Aspidiotus. Puparium round; discarded pellicles in the centre; not more than 4 a. P. media groups of spinnerets. a. A, epidendri ‘= m ost European. b. A. atherosperma ... LE xxm New Zealand. e. A. dysoayli 515 s ids New Zealand. d. A. aurantii ME C NE AR N.Z. and Australia, 4. Diaspis. Puparium, round or oval ; discarded pellicles at one side ; not more than five groups of spinnerets. a. D. rose 5. Fiorinia: : Puparium, oval or elongated ; pellicle of second stage nearly filling the puparium. a. Fiorinia astelia* -r ea New Zealand. * Described in Transactions, Vol. XI., p. 201, under the name Diaspis gigas. 800 Transactions.— Zoology. Group Il.—Lecanipz. Females retaining feet and antenne; abdomen cleft at extremity, with two protruding lobes; antennæ generally with seven joints. Subsection 1.— Lecanium. Females naked; often vivaparous. 8. L, hesperidum 3 European. Subsection 2. aL Pulvieigiia: Females naked ; forming cocoons for eggs. &. P. camellicola = European. Subsection 8. Tee diaspida. Females covered by test, waxy or glassy, usually fringed; generally in last stage female shrivelling up at one end of the test. a. Ctenochiton perforatus — ... me New Zealand. b. Ctenochiton viridis ip ve New Zealand. c. Ctenochiton spinosus E Tes New Zealand. d. Ctenochiton elongatus — ... = New Zealand. e. Inglisia patella a vis New Zealand. Group III. Females naked, or covered with secretion of eottony fibres or meal ; mentum, bi- or tri-artieulate ; abdomen ending in more or less conspieuous anal tubercles. Subsection 1.— Coccida. Antenne of not more than eight joints. a. Acanthococcus multispinus es New Zealand. b. Eriococcus araucarie ... ids New Zealand. e. Eriococcus hoheria vee < New Zealand. d. Dactylopius calceolarie ... ns New Zealand. e. Dactylopius glaucus n E New Zealand. f. Dactylopius poe ove EA New Zealand. Subsection 2.—Monophlebide. Antenne of eleven joints. a. Icerya purchasi ca dee New Zealand. b. Celostoma zalandicum iss New Zealand. To the above I ~ add the following insects, connected in my papers with the Coccidæ ORDER—HOMOPTERA. CLASS—DIMERA, Family—Aleyrodidæ. Aleyrodes. Four wings, covered with white meal, in both sexes ; antenne with six joints ; tarsus two-jointed, PIVI ZB 7224. E VOLXI TUT ti | T | TRANS.NZ.INS COCC/DA. WMMasteh del. Hawirrox.— On Melicerta ringens and Plumatella repens. 801 a. Asterochiton lecanioides |... UT New Zealand. b. Asterochiton aureus a s New Zealand. e. Powellia vitreo-radiata ... Ar . New Zealand. d. Powellia doryphora Ea i New Zealand. I have also three species of Hymenopterous insects parasitic on Homop- tera, and belonging, as I think, to the genera Diapria and Coccophagus. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII. Mytilaspis phymatodidis. Fig. 1. Abdomen of female, magn. 200 diams. Mytilaspis metrosideri., 2. Abdomen of female, magn. 200 diams, Poliaspis media. 8. Abdomen of female, magn. 200 di 4. Antenna of male, magn. 100 diams. 5. Foot of male, magn. 100 diams. Calostoma zealandicum. 6. Female, upper-side, magn. 2 diams. 7. Female, under-side, magn. 2 diams 8. Female, foot, after treatment with potash, magn. 25 diams. 9, Female, antenna, after treatment with potash, magn. 25 diams. 10. Female, ovipositor, magn. 200 diams. 19. Antenna of young insect, magn. 60 diams. 18. Leg of young insect, magn. 60 diams. Eriococcus hoheria. 14. Young insect, magn. 60 diams. 15. Antenna of young insect, magn. 200 diams. 16. Foot of young insect, magn. 200 diams. 17. Female, magn. 25 diams. 18. Antenna ef female, magn. 200 diams. 19. Foot of female, magn. 200 diams. 20. Anal tubercles of female, magn. 90 diams. Art. XXX VIII.—On Melicerta ringens and Plumatella repens By A. Hawinrow. Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 22nd November, 1879.) Have recently (September, 1879) had occasion to gather a few specimens of Myriophyllum from a swamp in the Petane valley, near Napier, I came across several interesting organisms, which I propose bringing under your 802 Transactions.— Zoology. notice, not only that another locality may be added to their geographical distribution, but also as objects which will well repay the trouble of col- lection and study. : The first is a tube-dwelling Rotifer, Melicerta ringens. This very curious animal has been well described by Gosse.* He there describes the mode by which the tiny animal forms its tube, by drawing from the water, by means of its cilia, any particles of solid matter which might be held in suspension. These particles, he states, are deposited in the alimentary canal until there is sufficient to form a little ball, the par- ticles of which become cemented together by some secretion of the animal. The ball is then lifted by the head of the animal and deposited in regular sequence on the rim of the tube. Having spent some time in examining a number of these organisms, I found the minute description given by Gosse to be generally correct, with the exception that the formation of the pellets was at a much slower rate than that stated by him. The tubes occur in great profusion on the finely-divided leaves of the Myriophyllum, and are easily discernible, some being 4 of an inch in length. The next specimen is a very puzzling one. Probably it may be referred to Plumatella repens. It is a fine species, the polypidon of which adheres at the base, but it eventually becomes less aggregated, and ultimately free ; coriaceous, of a dark brown almost black colour, irregularly branched, ex- tending sometimes over 2 or 8 inches; branches composed apparently of tubular cells, with a cup-shaped enlargement and dilated orifices ; sometimes in pairs ; walls of orifice pellucid. Tentacles yellowish white. Statoblast observable in all. " The ramulus, when adherent, short, when free, elongated. Statoblast elongated, oval; annulus variable, resembling the eggs of P. stricta, Allm., as figured by Van Beneden, or a drawing that I have of P. fruticosa, Allm. The general habit of the Polyp agrees with the description of Allman's Plumatella repens, var. 3. I found the above growing plentifully on dead thistles in the swamp, and brought a few specimens home with me and plaeed them in water. The next morning I found that a number of the individuals had committed suicide by the extrusion of their eggs, which I observed were floating on the surface of the water. Some of the remaining individuals, however, unfolded their tentacles, and enabled me to ascertain that they are not so extremely sensitive to any disturbance as is usually stated in accounts of P. repens. Indeed the fact of their growing so freely in such an open situation in only a few inches of water would lead one to infer this, * Trans. Micros. Soc., Vol. III., (1852) p. 58. T. W. Kmx.—0On the Marine Mollusca of Wellington. 808 There are many other interesting animals living in this pond, but I must defer noticing them till another opportunity. I would, however, mention that Lepidurus (Apus) kirkii was very plentiful during August and the early part of September, but it has now disappeared, and a large reddish- brown Hydra has made its appearance and affords me much amusement in observing its curious method of increase. . Arrt. XXXIX.—List of Marine Mollusea found in the neighbourhood of Welling- ton. By T. W. Kirk, Assistant in the Colonial Museum. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 21st February, 1880.] . Is the author's preface to the new Manual of New Zealand Mollusca, just published by the Colonial Museum and Geological Survey Department, the following passage oceurs :—'* Much still remains to be done towards working out the geographical distribution of the species; and lists would be par- ticularly valuable from Napier, Taranaki, Wellington, Nelson, Hokitika, and Banks Peninsula.” Since reading the above-quoted passage, I have carefully examined the large collections contained in the Colonial Museum, and also the private cabinets of Mr. E. Butts, junr., Mr. H. B. Kirk, and Mr. Herbert, to all of whom my sincere thanks are due. The results of this examination will be found in the following catalogue, which contains in all the names of 262 species and varieties, as follows :— CrrHaLopopa—7 ASTEROPODA—163 ScapHopopa—2 LAMELLIBRANCHIATA—84 BnaacnroponA—6 This number will probably, ere long, be greatly inereased, as no attempt worthy of the name has yet been made to dredge this part of the coast. Where a species which has no Wellington representative in the Colonial Museum occurs in a private cabinet, the initials of the collector are appended. For the purposes of this paper, I shall consider the neighbourhood of Wellington to include not only the Harbour, but also that piece of coast between Pencarrow Head and Porirua Harbour. It was my intention to have appended notes on the relative abundance of the various species, as also on observed phenomena connected with the growth of individual forms; but these must be reserved for a future occasion. CEPHALOPODA. Octopus maorum, Hutton. Sepioteuthis bilineata, Q. and G Argonauta tuberculata, Shaw. Sepia apama, Gray (broken shells) Onychoteuthis bartlingii, Lesueur. Spirula peronii, Lam. Ommastrephes sloanii, Gray. 804 Transactions.— Zoology. GASTEROPODA. Onchidella nigricans, Q. and G. Amphibola avellana, Chem. eoe ed T » 0, Sow obliquata, Sow. Gadinia ur Hutto Acus tton. Pleurotoma albuls. — Drillia nove-zealandiz, Daphnella cancellata, ln * togonus, Quoy. ‘tation ambiguus, H. and J. P stangeri, Gray. io incisus, Gould. n inferus, Hutton. a paivee Fusus spiralis, Adams. Neptunea zealandica, Quoy. G 5 audata, Q. and E dilatata, Quoy. 3 on oe trav ER lineata 33 ar. C » litteuipolden, Reeve. martensiana, Hutton, Cominella — Martyn. - tudinea, Chem. = nnsside, B Reeve. lineolata, Lam. 3? funerea, ‘Gould. Purpura haustrum, Martyn. Polytropa textiliosa, Lam. ja succincta, Lam. se a, Q. and G australis, Sow. eee ophione, Gray. Saar a Sc Voluta = ER acilis, Noui. (E.B.) grac Marginella albeseens, Hutton, Erato lactea, Hutto Triton spengleri, C. Ranella Duc Ze vexillum, S versi, Hutton (small). donee Cassis pyrum, Lam. Trivia aus ise S7 am. occine Struthiolaria aie pe y. B. 2? 39 = australis, Gnl. Tricho otropis inornata, Hu tton. Scalaria wellingtonensis, sp. nov. Philippia lutea, Lam Ianthina commünis, Lam. T iricolor Reeves. n, xigua, Natica eed a chathamensis, Hutton. Corithidea og Gray. , Q. and G. Bittium a. v. Martens. rulescens, Lam. Fossarina varius, on. Rissoina plicata, Hutton. purpurea, Hutton. Barleeia rosea, Hutton B^ € Hutton impolita, Hutton, Turritella rosea, Y , Hutton. Cladopoda edi Quoy. iliquaria australis, Quoy. Trochita saii , Lesson -zealandis, Lesson. Crypta ostata, Desha sem noc mon PP ides unguifo , Lam Hipponyx kaai Lan. Ap. B.) Acmea pileopsis, Q. an s, C Nerita atrata, Lam. ee sare Martyn. gran Hosts, Martyn. Calcar cookii, imperi rialis, TM Rotella zealandica, TL and d. Anthora tuberculata, Gray. es Vac — Hutton. nd G. , Qa Euchelus | bella, Hutton. T. W. Kirx.—On the Marine Mollusca of Wellington. 805 GasTEROoPODA.— Continued. Diloma ethiops, Gm. ctori, eode ‘subrostrata, Gray. Zizyphinus punctulatus, Martyn. » granatum, Chem. » = Ren. our rap Gray. Cantharidus i iris, E iue lious. Adams. » ncaa, Martyn. huttoni, Smith. Haliotis iris, Martyn. » rugoso- plicata, Chem. Patella inconspicua, Gray. i, Hutton. (H.B.K.) Patella tramoseriea, Martyn. » ERN. ut » Stellifera, rubigi soe n Chiton pellis- "serpentis, Quoy. » Sinelairi, Gray. concentricus, Reeve. glaucus, Gray. Lepidoplearus longicymbus, De ville. Tonicia undulata, Quoy. rubiginosa, Hutton. Chetopleura nobilis, ge Plaxiphora biramosa, Q. an Acanthochites zealandicus, ph G.: i po "p peoia, Reeve. vatus, Hut OESTE vis porosus, Pam, Cylichna striata, Hutto Bulla quoyi, Gray. Haminea obesa, Low, Aplysia brunnea, Hutton, enosa, Hutton. Aplysia tryoni, Meinertzhagen. Pleurobranchea nove-zealandie, » reevel, Are » affinis, Reeve. Doris wellingtonensis, Abraham. j5 ians, Gml Phidiana longicauda, Quoy. » flava, Hutton. SCAPHOPODA. Dentalium huttoni, sp. nov, | Dentalium sp. (broken). LAMELLIBRANCHIATA, Vanganella taylori, Gray. arnea similis, Gra 'holadidea spathulata, Sow. ed x" » æq T » . donaciformis, Gray (? ) Standella ovata, Gray. » el 3 and G. » notata, Hutton. Zenatia acinaces, Q. and G. Raeta perspieua, Hutton Psammobia stangeri, Gray. is x me Gray. eve. Soletellina diis, Gray. Tellina alba, Q. and G. » deltoidalis, Desh. » diseulus, Desh. subovata, Sow. MedotadoR novæ-zealandiæ, Chem. i ee Gray. 1SS8, eeve, Venus ae tg Hanley. creba, Hutton. Cone lm lamellata, Lam. » yatei, Gray. 306 2 Transactions.— Zoology. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.— Continued. Leda concinna, A. Adams. Solenella australis, Q. and G Mytilus magellanieus, Lam. them. Chione costata, Quoy. " — , L. Reeve. ter, F rauenfeld. Crenella i impacta, Hermann. Modiola areolata, Gould. fluviatilis, Hutton. Lithodomus truncatus, Gray. grayi, Zittel. (H.B.K.). Tapes iiaa Quoy. Venerupis reflexa, Gray. (H.B. Pinna ze alandi®, Gray. Pecten zealandiæ, Gray. ) emmulatns, Reeve Kellia cycladiformis, D » radiatus, Hutton. ina stowei, Hutton eatus, Hutton vellie Vola latioostates: Gray. Lima j pai A. Benet Cardita australis, Lam. Barbatia decussata, | Sow. ata, v. Ateoa a stowei, Hutton: (H.B.K.) alectus, Gray. (H.B. Ped pusilla, Sow. Pectunculus latioostadas, Quoy. stri a m. Nucula nitidula, 4 : » Sirangei, 4. m » sulcata, A. Adams. Planunanomia z ealandiea, Gra; ma ione, Ani (H.B.K.) Ostrea edulis, Reeve. ; dis ja. omui Bracwiopopa. Waldheimia lenticularis, Desh. Terebratella cruenta, Dillwyn. £ rubicunda, Solander. Magas evansii, Davidson Bouchardia cumi mingii, Davidson. Rhynchonella nigricans, Sow. e ART. XL.— Descriptions of new Marine Shells. By T. W. Kr, Assistant in the Colonial Museum. (Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 21st February, 1880.] Dentalium huttoni. Shell white, lustrous; small, curved, rapidly tapering, ribbed, ribs unequal, about eighteen at the anterior end, but dimini towards the apex. Length, -63 inch ; breadth, -1 at anterior end. é Three specimens in the stomach of a trumpeter (Latris hecateia). Named after Professor Hutton, to whose exertions students of Conchology in this country are so greatly indebted. Dentalium ecostatum, shing in number T. W. Krgk.—On the Occurrence of Vitrina milligani in N.Z. — 807 Shell white; nearly straight, smooth, gradually tapering; faiatly, dis- tantly, transversely striated. Length, *6 inch; breadth, -07 at anterior end. Waikanae. cae sp. A broken shell, in the collection of Mr. Herbert, Wellington, would appear to add a fifth species of Dentalium to our “ List;" but as only about half the specimen remains, and that the apical portion, its identification is somewhat difficult. The shell is white, ribbed, ribs equal, about nineteen in number, Island Bay, Wellington. Scalaria wellingtonensis. Shell white, lustrous ; acuminate, imperforate ; whorls nine, rounded; varices numerous, thin, about seventeen on the body-whorl ; interstices smooth ; aperture sub-rotund. Length,- *4 inch. Wellington. Cylichna zealandica. Shell white; strong, smooth, faintly longitudinally striated. Aperture produced above the spire. Length, :35 inch. Waikanae. Art. XLI.— Notice of the Occurrence of Vitrina millizani in New Zealand. By T. W. Kmer, Assistant in the Colonial Museum. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 21st February, 1880.] Ur tothe present time only two species of Vitrina have been recorded as indigenous to New Zealand.* I have now to notice the discovery of a third ; a large, highly polished, and really beautiful species. Vitrina milligani, Shell pbi noni rather solid, polished, very glossy, translucent, olive-blaek ; spire convex; whorls three, second convex, last depressly- rounded; aperture more oblique than diagonal, lunately rounded-oval, within coloured as without; peristome simple; right margin dilated for- wards, anterior regularly and columellar slightly arched. (Petterd). eter, greatest, -9 inch; least, :6; height, :4; aperture, " inch long, 4 broad.—South Karori (T. W. K.) * See Manual of New Zealand Mollusca, p. 12. 308 ~ Transactions.—Zoology. Art. XLIL.— Additions to the List of New Zealand Fishes. By. T. W. Kg, Assistant in the Colonial Museum. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 10th January, 1880.) Ix October last I received notice that a Turtle had been found at Island Bay, near Wellington, but, on reaching the spot, was greatly disappointed to find that the person who discovered it had not been sufficiently careful to secure his prize, which had consequently been washed away by the next tide; however, I was recompensed by finding specimens of three fish, men- tioned below, none of which had previously been obtained on the New Zealand coast, though they are all found in Australia. Atypus strigatus, Günth. Günth. II., p. 64. The genus Atypus was created by Dr. Günther specially for the reception of this beautiful little fish, which he mentions very minutely. The following is his description :— B. 7. D. 7245. L. lat. 70-75; L. trans. He “The general form of the body is that of a species of Therapon; it is compressed, oblong, its greatest height below the fifth dorsal spine being one-third of the total length. The upper profile descends obliquely down- wards to the end of the snout, ina very slightly curved line. The length of the head is four-and-a-half in the total length ; the extent of the snout is less than the diameter of the eye, or the space between the orbits, which is slightly convex. The cleft of the mouth is small, the upper maxillary + reaching to the anterior margin of the orbit. The preoperculum is nearly as wide as high, with the lower margin rounded and very slightly serrated. No pores are visible at or between the pieces of the mandibule. The eye is of moderate size. The preoperculum is rather deeply serrated round its margins, the denticulations being longest at the angle, which is a right one. The operculum is not armed. All the head is covered with very small scales. The dorsal fin begins in a vertical drawn from between the bases of the peetoral and ventral fins, and terminates at a distance from the caudal which equals that between the eye aud the posterior margin of the operculum. The upper margin of the fin has no notch between the two portions, and its profile descends gradually from the fifth spine to the termi- nation of the fin. The spines are of moderate strength, broader on one T. W. Kir«x.—ddditions to the List of New Zealand Fishes. 809 side; the first is the shortest, about half the diameter of the eye; the following increase in length to the fifth, which is tallest, one-half the length of the head ; the last is rather longer than one-half the fifth. The anterior rays do not dsl i in length the last spine, the whole soft portion is covered with minute scales. "The caudal is sealy at the base only, forked, each lobe being 44 inches in the total length. The anal fin begins in a vertical from the last dorsal spine, and terminates a little behind the dorsal; the three spines are as long as the dorsal ones. * * * ‘The pestóralo are scaly at the base, pointed, one-sixth of the total length, and do not reach to the vertical from the vent. The ventrals are inserted behind the pectorals, and reach to the vent; their spine is not quite one-half the length of the head. The teeth of the jaws form a villiform band, with an outer series of stronger ones, which are very slightly flattened. There is a small patch of teeth on the head of the vomer." Dr. Günther speaking of the specimens in the British Museum, says :— ** The ground-colour is now greyish-yellow, and appears to have been red i in life. The back and sides are banded with brown." When fresh, the ground-colour of the New Zealand Specimen was bright silver, the bands black—not brown, as stated by Dr. Günther; these colours have, however, become much lighter since the fish was sli in Spirits. Another and larger specimen, obtained at Port Jackson, Australia, is in the Colonial Museum ; its colours are the same as those of the New Zealand specimen, but not quite so bright, probably from its having been longer preserved. The food of this species appears to be composed almost entirely of Diatoms. Atherina pinguis, Lacep. Lacep. V., p. 372, pl. 11, fig. 1; Günth. IIL, p. 399. D. 5-6|4;. A. gets. “ The origin of the spinous dorsal fin is at some distance behind the ver- tical from the vent, con- sequently the dorsal is much nearer to the anal than to the root of the ventral * œ The height of the body is contained five times and two-thirds in the total length, the length of the head four times and two-thirds. The diameter of the eye is equal to the width of the inter- orbital space. Snout obtuse, short, with the cleft of the mouth oblique, 310 Transactions.—Z oology. and the upper jaw overlapping the lower. Teeth distinct in the jaws on the vomer and the palatine bones. A silvery streak occupies the third series of scales and the adjoining quarter of the fourth.” (Giinth.) Colour: above dark brown, the extremity of each scale lined with black ; under parts and sides below the silver line light brown ; fins yellow, tinged with black. Dr. Giinther does not mention the presence of a large triangular scale covering the base of the ventrals. Sphyrena obtusata, Sphyrena obtusata, Cuv. and Val. VI., p. 350; Günth. Il., “ The height of the body is contained seven or eight eal in the total length, the length of the head three and a third times; the diameter of the eye is more than one fifth of the length of the head. The first dorsal and the ventral fins commence in the vertical from the extremity of the pectorals. Preoperculum not rounded, with the angle slightly produced." (Günth. Colour: above dark brown ; sides and under parts silvery ; fins yellow. Odax vittatus, Sol. The colours of a specimen lately obtained in Wellington Harbour differ considerably from those of the specimen described by Professor Hutton.* . Upper surface dark brown, almost black, marbled with lighter. Lateral streak bright silver, interrupted in places by blotches of salmon colour. Dorsal fin red, with several irregular patches of dark green. Remaining fins green with red rays. Art. XLITI,—On the Occurrence of Giant Cuttlefish on the New Zealand Coast. By T. W. Krx, Assistant in the Colonial Museum. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 10th October, 1879.] As far as I am aware, there is at present no record of the occurrence of cuttlefish of unusual size on the New Zealand coast. That the Maoris have traditions of the existence of such monsters is, however, beyond doubt. I have therefore great pleasure in laying before the Society all the partieulars available relating to several speeimens captured on various * Trans, N.Z. Inst., VIIL., p. 215. PRI PET EI T, NIU WE OR ETE NND RENT TET 1 J 1 3 3 E . | a s T. W. Kimx.—On the Occurrence of Giant Cuttlefish in N.Z. 811 parts of our coast, and hope to show that, even in the matter of “ devil- fish," New Zealand can hold her own. 1. The first to which I will direct your attention was cast ashore at Waimarama, East Coast. For the following description I am indebted to Mr. F. H. Meinertzhagen, who also very kindly presented me with the beak. Writing from Waimarama on 27th June last, Mr. Meinertzhagen says :— * In answer to yours of the 9th, I will furnish you with all particulars of the large cuttlefish found here. I must first tell you that it was obtained in 1870 (September), during my absence in England; the beak was secured for me, which I forward to you by post, and which is quite at your disposal. I enclose also the measurements, made by a friend of mine on whom I could rely, and an extract from his letter written to me at the time, which letter, though quite unscientific, seems to me to give a vivid idea of the dead Octopus. ‘The beast had eight tentacles, as thick as a man's leg at the roots; horrid suckers on the inside of them, from the size of an ounce bullet to that of a pea at the tip; two horrid goggle eyes; and a powerful beak between the roots of the arms. His head appeared to slip in and out of a sheath. Altogether he was a most repulsive-looking brute. All the natives turned out to see him; and the old men say it is a *taniwha'—a ‘wheke’ of that size never having been seen by them. They say that a ‘taniwha’ of this description attacked and swamped a canoe on its way to Otago; in fact, they do not hesitate to say that this is the identical animal that did the deed! They also say that these large “‘ whekes” are very apt to seize a man and tear his inside out. No more sea-bathing for me!’ Besides the above extract, I forward a little ink-sketch and measurements made by my friend.” The sketch represents an animal much the same shape as shown in the drawing now before you, but with only eight arms. Length from tip of tail to root of arms, 10 feet 5 inches. Circumference, 6 feet. Length of arms, 5 feet 6 inches. 2. The beak of number 2 was deposited in the Colonial Museum by Mr. A. Hamilton ; the animal was captured at Cape Campbell by Mr. C. H. Robson, a member of this society, who very kindly furnished me with the following information. Writing on the 19th June, 1879, he says :— “ In reply to yours of the 12th, about the cuttlefish, I may state that, while stationed at Cape Campbell, I found several specimens of large size, all, however, more or less mutilated, except one, the beak of which I gave to Mr. Hamilton ; it was alive, and quite perfect, the body being 7 feet long, eight sessile arms 8 feet long, and two tentacular arms 12 feet. I am, how- ments, and I remember distinctly that the total length was close on 20 feet.” 312 Transactions.—Zoology. I am sorry to say that Mr. Hamilton has mislaid the notes and measure- ments, but those given above cannot be far out. 8. On 28rd of May last, the Ven. Archdeacon Stock very kindly sent me word that three boys, named Edward R. Stock, and Frank and Walter Morrah, had that morning discovered, at Lyall Bay, what they took to be a very large cuttlefish, with arms several feet long. I lost no time in pro- ceeding to the spot, determined, if possible, to carry home the entire specimen; but judge my surprise when, on reaching the bay, I saw an animal of the size represented in the drawing now before you.* Victor Hugo’s account of his “pieuvre” was brought vividly to my mind, and I could not help thinking that a man would stand but a poor chance if he once got within the grasp of such a monster. My first step after spreading out the arms, was to make a rough sketch and very careful measurements. I then proceeded to extract the so-called skeleton, but found that some person or persons, who had visited the spot earlier than myself, had not been able to resist the temptation to try the temper of their knives upon its back, and had in consequence severed the cuttle-bone in various places. However, I was able, not only to procure all the pieces, but also the beak, tongue, and some of the suckers, only a few of which remained, the greater portion of them having been torn off, either in some fierce encounter, or during the rough weather which had prevailed for some days previously. The length of body from tip of tail to anterior margin of the mantle was 9 feet 2 inches and 7 feet 3 inches in circumference ; the head from anterior margin of mantle to roots of arms 1 foot 11 inches, making the total length of the body 11 feet 1 inch. The head measured 4 feet in circumference. The sessile arms measured 4 feet 3 inches in length, and 11 inches in cir- eumference; each of these arms bore thirty-six suckers, arranged in two equal rows (as shown by the scars), and measuring from 1$ to ł of an inch in diameter; every sucker was strengthened by a bony ring armed with from forty to sixty sharp ineurved teeth. The tentacular arms had been torn off at the length of 6 feet 2 inches, which was probably less than half their original length. The fins were posterior, and were mere lateral expansions of the mantle, they did not extend over the back as in the case with Onychoteuthis, etc. ; each measured 24 inches in length and 18 inches in width. The euttle bone, when first extracted, measured 6 feet 8 inches in length, and 11 inehes in width, but has since shrunk considerably; it was broadly lanceolate, with a hollow conical apex 14 inch deep. 4. Another specimen, measuring 8 feet in length, was lately caught by a fishing party, near the Boulder Bank, at Nelson, concerning which I have * The paper was illustrated by drawings showing the animal life-size. T. W. Kirx.—On a new Species of Palinurus. 818 only seen a newspaper cutting, and have not been able to obtain par- ticulars. 5. A fifth was found by Mr. Moore, near Flat Point, East Coast. A description was sent to Mr. Beetham, M.H.R., who, I believe, intends com- municating it to this Society. It will be seen by the above notiee that there are at least two species of “ Giant Cephalopods” on our coast, as the Waimarama specimen had only eight arms, while those captured at Cape Campbell and Wellington were true Decapods. I would take this opportunity of recording my thanks to the three young gentlemen who brought news into town of the stranding of the Lyall Bay specimen. Art. XLIV.— Description of a new Species of Palinurus. By T. W. King, Assistant in the Colonial Museum Plate XI. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 21st February, 1880.] Tue specimen described in this paper was obtained by Mr. J. Buchanan, F.L.S., in December, 1877, at Whaingaroa, a small harbour on the West Coast of the North Island. It was placed in the Colonial Museum, and until lately bore the label ** Palinurus hugelii var. tumidus," in the hand- writing of Dr. Hector, z whom it has since been entrusted to me for description. In general appearance, this fine species approaches very near P. hugelii, from the Indian Ocean, and might at first be mistaken for it; I have, however, carefully compared our specimen with Dr. Heller’s description of P. hugelii,* and it appears to me to possess characters sufficiently distinct to justify its elevation to the rank of a species. I therefore propose to retain Dr. Hector's MS. name, and designate the new species ** Palinurus tumidus,” although perhaps, giganteus, would be quite as appropriate, the total length from the tip of the beak to the end of the telson being 24 inches, the carapace very much swollen and measuring 211 inches in circumference. Dr. Hector informs me that this is the common crawfish at the Sydney market, yet, strange to say, although so large and so common, it does not appear to have been described, the only attempt made to identify it being found in the Sydney Museum, where a specimen bears the label ** Palinurus hugelii ?." . * See Reise der Osterreichischen Fregatte Novara, Crustaceen, p. 96, tab. VIII. 83 314 Transactions.— Zoology. Palinurus tumidus, sp. nov. Carapace beaked, much swollen, armed with very blunt spines, or rather spine-knobs, some directed forward, others, again, standing nearly vertical ; a double row of small, stout, blunt spines, standing nearly vertical, runs along the posterior edge of the carapace. Beak stout, round, and curved upwards. Supra-orbital spines stout, compressed, turned upwards. An- tenn spines stout, somewhat triangular in shape, and also turned upwards. Superior antenne less than the total length of the animal, peduncle armed on its upper and outer surface with stout spines. Inferior antenne smooth, longer than peduncle of superior. Anterior legs very stout, inferior margin of second joint armed with a row of five or six spines; third joint with a very stout spine at the anterior and also at the posterior extremity, the anterior twice the size of the posterior, also a stout triangular spine on the superior distal extremity ; fifth joint with a row of six spines on the superior internal angle, the largest and posterior one being directed backwards to meet the anterior spine of the third joint, a row of three small blunt spines on the inferior internal angle. Superior margin of the distal extremity of the third joint of the last four pairs of legs armed with a spine. Abdomen very coarsely granulated and punctated. Tail, especially the telson, armed with small spines ; telson rounded at the extremity. Anterior margin of each segment of the abdomen produced into a very prominent spine, backed by three or four teeth. Whole animal destitute of hair, with the exception of the pedipalps, and the inferior surface of the terminal joint of each pair of legs. Colour, reddish brown, tinged in many places with yellow. Length, 24 inches. Distinguished from P. hugelii by its much larger size, by the beak, supra-orbital and antenne spines being turned upwards, by the telson being less triangular, and rounded instead of Scarped. PLATE XI. represents Palinurus tumidus. a. Dorsal view. b. Inferior surface of anterior leg, showing armature, Arr. XLV.— Description of a new Species of Lizard of the Genus Naultinus. By W. L. Burum, C.M.G., Sc.D., F.R.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 10th January, 1880.] _ Tus lizard described in this paper was obtained in August last by Mr. Joseph Annabell while engaged on a Government survey in the wooded country of e Wanganui district. It is an interesting form, belonging to a well known a? = La pu FALIWURUS TUMIDUS Sp. nou Marr.—On Fishes in Upper Whanganui River. E 815 group of tree-lizards, whose colours and markings, for protective purposes, bear a strong resemblance to their natural surroundings. The bright green tints of one species enables it almost to defy detection amidst the evergreen foliage of the native shrubs; the marbled-brown skin of another is peculiarly adapted for concealment as it clings to the bark of a tree, or hides in the crevices ; whilst a third, which inhabits the sulphur-crusted grounds in the Lake District, is of a uniform bright sulphur-yellow. The species described by the author of this paper is beautifully marked on its upper surface with patches of pale brown and minute granulations of yellow, exactly resembling in appearance a peculiar Lichen common on the bark of certain trees. Apart from good specific characters, it furnishes another remarkable instance of the law of assimilative colouring referred to. Art. XLVI.— Notes on Fishes in Upper Whanganui River. By Captain Mar, F.L.S. LRead before the Wellington Philosophical Society 10th January, 1880.] Durme the summer and autumn rains, large quantities of fish are caught by the Natives in weirs or single lines of stakes driven into the bed of the river at the heads of the rapids, and placed at an angle of about 10 degrees across the current. These lines of stakes are 50 feet or 60 feet long, and 15 yards or 20 yards apart, according to the width of the river. Hinakis or wicker baskets are placed at the bottom of each row of stakes, and the fish, which appear always to swim down the middle of the river, upon meeting these lines of stakes placed at a slight angle to the stream, follow them down into the funnel-mouthed hinakis aforesaid, and are thus caught. As soon as the pot is full, it is replaced by an empty one. In this manner, I saw about 7 cwt. obtained from two hinakis, at Whenuatere, on February 25th, 1879. The fish so obtained are :—Papanoko, Toitoi, Inanga, Atutahi, Upokororo, and a peculiar kind of eel called Tunaheke. Papanoko are small fish, from six to eight inches in length, and very deep in proportion, as the accompanying rough sketch will show, and weigh about the eighth of a pound. At this season of the year they are very fat, full of spawn, and are most delicious eating. The fins are red ; scales very small; back, pepper-and-salt colour; belly, silvery. This fish is called Te ika huna a Tanemahuta—the hidden fish of Tane—the god of the forests ; ' for they are never found in the streams or rivers, unless during a flood, and then only during the night. Great ceremony is observed in cooking them, and they are taken some distance from the village for the purpose. The natives aver that if this were not done, no more fish would enter the hinakis, — 816 Transactions.—Z oology. "m Toitoi are a small blue fish similar to those caught in lakes, but larger. They are fair eating, but rather full of bones—quite unlike the Papanako, which have hardly any. Inanga are plentiful. A large kind, called Atutahi, are most esteemed as food ; they are almost 5 inches in length, and quite transparent. Upokororo are plentiful during the first winter months, also lamprey ; but the latter are only caught on the lower part of the river. The eel most prized by the natives is called Tunaheke. The name implies that it comes from the sources of the rivers, and goes to the sea. It is a very fine fish, varying from 1-10 Ibs. in weight; is bluish-black, with flat head, very small mouth and teeth, tail very wide in proportion to the body; but the most remarkable features are its large, deep, blue eyes. It is very strong and active, and can jump out of a canoe. The natives keep them in large wicker-work baskets, placed in the small streams, for many months, feeding them upon boiled potatoes which keep them in good con- dition. These fish are supposed to come out of the swamps during heavy floods. It is remarkable that they are never caught except during rains, and do not readily take bait. Where the Ohura river joins the Whanganui, there is a fall of almost 86 feet. In December and January millions of small eels, from 2—5 inches in length and the thickness of a steel knitting-needle, may be seen crawling up the face of the overhanging rock, whenever there is sufficient moisture. At the time of my visit (February 27th) the season was over; yet we caught a great many, between nine and ten o’clock at night, by brushing them into a net with a whisp of fern. It was most interesting to see these little creatures wriggling up the fall in solid masses, apparently hanging on to each other ; for if you swept away two or three at the head of the column the remainder all fell back into the water. Tunariki are considered a great delicacy by the natives, who hang funnels (shaped like a dunce’s cap) made of flax, over the falls, into which these little creatures creep till it is quite - full, they are then emptied into baskets. Two or three hundredweight are frequently caught in one night in this manner. Large Patiki (flat fish) are occasionally speared up the river. Formerly they were very plentiful and were caught in nets. III.—BOTAN Y. Art. XLVII.—On the Botany of the Pirongia Mountain. By T. F Cuerseman, F.L.S. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 80th June, 1879.] Reswents and travellers in the Waikato and Waipa districts are all well acquainted with the pieturesque Pirongia Mountain, As Hochstetter well remarks :—“ This ancient dilapidated voleano" * * * ‘with its many peaks and ravines” gives to the Waipa country its characteristic scenery. ** The eye never tires of gazing at it, as it always assumes new forms from each new point of view.” None of our early naturalists appear to have investigated the flora of the mountain. This is the more singular, as it is easily ascended and is in close proximity to the Waipa river,—before the Maori war, & recognized highway into the interior of the country. Dr. Dieffenbach certainly passed over a portion of the mountain in 1841, but it does not appear that he made any collections on the oecasion. Dr. Hochstetter, when journeying up the Waipa Valley, in 1859, turned out of his way to climb the much lower and—in every respect—less interesting hill Kakepuku, but made no attempt to ascend Pirongia. Since then the Maori difficulty practically closed the mountain to Europeans until quite recent times. The following remarks are based upon notes made during two ascents, in January 1877 and January 1879, and must be understood as referring to the eastern and central parts of the mountain only, as on both occasions I failed to pene- trate to the western side (partly through want of time and the impracti- cable nature of the vegetation to be passed through after the first summit is reached ; and, on the last ascent, partly through opposition raised by the Maoris. At some future time, I hope to examine the remainder of the mountain, and possibly to give a sketch of its entire flora,—to a knowledge of which the present paper is only a slight contribution. Pirongia is an extinct trachyte cone, standing on the west side of the Waipa river, almost direetly opposite the township of Alexandra. Its highest peaks attain an altitude of 2830 feet, but the range of which it is the culminating point maintains for some distance both to the north and south an average height of over 1000 feet. A continuation of the ridge 818 . Transactions.—Botany. running northwards forms the Hakarimata mountains opposite to Ngarua- wahia, and at its lowest point, near Whatawhata, is erossed by the road leading from the Waipa to Raglan. The southern range ultimately sinks into the limestone plateau, between the Waipa and Mokau rivers and the western coast. From the mountain itself numerous spurs and ridges radiate in all directions, separated by deep and, in many places, precipitous ravines, These are all occupied by mountain-streams, some of them being of con- siderable size. Those flowing from the eastern and southern sides of the mountain drain into the Waipa; those rising on the north-western flank form the source of the Waitetuna, discharging into Whaingaroa harbour ; while all those which spring from the western and south-western sides flow into some of the many inlets of Kawhia harbour. Standing on the top of the peak overlooking Alexandra, the summit of the mountain is seen to be almost split in twain by an immense chasm, over a thousand feet in depth, probably representing an old crater with its outer edge broken down. A similar, but smaller, chasm exists on the southern face of the mountain, and, if Maorireport is to be trusted, also on the western side. The separating ridges are in many places little more than sharp-edged walls of solid rock, rising here and there into domes and peaks, and now and then sinking into comparatively low saddles. A peak on the western side is the highest on the mountain, but several of the other summits almost equal it in height. The whole of the mountain proper is covered with luxuriant forest ; but between its base and the Waipa river there exists a narrow strip of open country, low, fern-clad hills, varied here and there with swampy gullies, and supporting a uniform and somewhat scanty vegetation. Pteris, Leptosper- mum, and Pomaderris are the most abundant plants. Coriaria, Gaultheria, Leucopogon, Epilobiwn, Haloragis, are all commonly met with ; in fact, the facies of the vegetation is precisely that of the tertiary clay hills in the immediate vicinity of Auckland. The swamps contain the usual dense growth of Typha, Cladium, Schenus, and Carex. A rather local species of the latter genus (C. inversa) was noticed in one or two localities. Among naturalized plants Hypericum perforatum was seen in some quantity. It may be remarked, in passing, that this species is spreading rapidly through the Waikato district, and threatens to become a troublesome weed. At Matamata, in the Thames valley, some old pastures have been completely overrun with it. Entering the forest, the ascent of the mountain is fairly commenced, though for a considerable distance the rise is very gradual. Here our guide pointed out to us the old camping ground—only a few yards distant from the track—where, a few years back, the unfortunate Mr. Todd was murdered by the Maoris while sleeping in his whare. The forest is at first almost Cuerseman.—On the Botany of the Pirongia Mountain. 819 wholly composed of magnificent tawas (Nesodaphne tawa). Nowhere have I seen taller or better-grown specimens, and their cool shade was most acceptable after the hot and dusty tramp over the fern-hills from Alexandra. Mixed up with tawas are scattered rimus (Dacrydium cupressinum), kahi- kateas (Podocarpus dacrydioides), and ratas (Metrosideros robusta). The last-named tree is much more common on the northern side of the moun- tain, and on the spurs above Harapipi forms a large proportion of the bush. Dysoxylum, Tetranthera, Knightia and Santalum are all comparatively plen- tiful. The undergrowth is principally composed of Coprosma lucida and C. grandifolia, Drimys axillaris, Alseuosmia macrophylla, fern trees, and several species of Gahnia and Astelia. Here and there thickets of the climbing Freycinetia banksii are met with, while **supple-jacks" (Rhipo- gonum), and mange-mange (Lygodium articulatum), are abundant enough. Nor are the climbing species of Metrosideros (M. florida, M. hypericifolia, M. scandens), or the prickly tataramoa (Rubus australis) at all rare. Little change takes place in the vegetation until an altitude of 1200 feet is reached, when the tawa becomes much less plentiful, its place being gradually taken by Weinmannia racemosa, Quintinia serrata, and Ixerba brexioides. Melicytus lanceolatus was noticed in one or two localities. Here, the first specimens of a new Polypodium (P. novae-zealandie, Baker, ms.) were collected.* It is usually found on rotten logs, rarely growing on the ground, and was not seen climbing trees, like its near allies P. billardieri and P. pustulatum. The rhizome, so conspicuous from its shaggy coating of chestnut-brown scales, is often as thick as the thumb, while fronds were measured (including the stipes) nearly five feet in height, with upwards of twenty pairs of pinne. It is abundant over the whole of the higher portion of the mountain. Above 1500 feet much of the undergrowth is composed of Coprosma fetidissima, well known to bushmen in the south of the Island from its disgustingly fcetid smell when bruised, or even handled. This is the first record of its occurrence to the north of the East Cape. Possibly Pirongia is its northern limit on the west coast, but on the east it has a more extensive range, as it occurs in profusion on the plateau above the Wairere Falls in the Thames Valley, and, according to Maori authority, is also found on Te Aroha. Two other species of Coprosma are associated with it on Pirongia; but, in the absence of flowers and fruit, they cannot be safely identified. One is a small, densely branched shrub, 2-5 feet high, with oblong or obovate leaves 1 inch in length, and may perhaps be a large form of C. colensoi. The other is a tall, slender shrub, with much of the habit of C. grandifolia, but with smaller, narrower, more acuminate leaves, very * See Trans. N.Z. Inst., X., p. 356. 320 Transactions.— Botany. finely reticulate beneath. This may prove to be C. acutifolia, or a close ally. Panax is a genus well represented on Pirongia. Besides P. arboreum and P. crassifoliwn, which are found all over the mountain, P. edgerleyi occurs in abundance on the higher slopes. In foliage it is one of the handsomest of the New Zealand species, and should be much more frequently seen in cultivation than it is at present. P. sinclairii is also of frequent occur- rence. It had not been previously noticed to the north of Lake Taupo, the habitat of * Auckland,” given in the ** Handbook," being clearly erroneous. P. colensoi is not so common as either of the above, and is seldom seen far from the higher peaks. Ferns are principally confined to the deep gullies, where they occur in luxuriant profusion. In rocky places, the banks of the streams are fringed for long distances with Lomaria elongata. Dark and gloomy places form the favourite habitat for Lomaria nigra, while in drier and more open locali- ties Lomaria vulcanica is occasionally seen. Trichomanes strictum is abun- dant; while overhanging trees are loaded with the various species of Hymenophyllum. On dry rocky banks Polypodium australe is more abun- dant than in any other loeality known to me, and attains an unusually large size. It is commonly associated with Lindsaya trichomanoides. Our guide informed us that large patches of the para ( Marattia frawinea ) are to be found in the deeper gullies, and that the Maoris often make expeditions to obtain its starchy rhizome. I did not, however, myself observe the plant. In boggy places, near the summit, extensive clumps of Todea superba were ‘noticed: the most northern locality yet recorded for this magnificent species. Dicksonia lanata occurs on some of the slopes near the summit, but nowhere shows any sign of producing an erect caudex, in this respect agreeing with specimens found in similar localities on the Cape Colville Peninsula. It may here be mentioned that Dicksonia antarctica probably occurs on the lower portion of the mountain, as it is plentiful towards the upper part of the Waitetuna Valley, some of the tributaries of which rise on the north-western flank of Pirongia. Several years ago Mr. W. J. Palmer observed it between Lake Waihi and Ngaruawahia, and quite recently the same gentleman has discovered it in abundance to the west of Lake Whangape, at present the most northerly locality known. Some distance below the summit, the tawa and rata and others of the lowland trees disappear entirely; Ixerba brewioides and Weinmannia racemosa now being the predominant species. Griselinia littoralis and Metrosideros lucida are also plentiful. Rocky places were covered with the ereeping Callixene parviflora, a charming little plant with waxy white flowers and berries. Libertia micrantha, which is found over the greater part of the mountain, is here excessively abundant. A few specimens of Chiloglottis Currseman.—On the Botany of the Pirongia Mountain. 821 traversit were collected, but all long past flowering. In open mossy places, Hymenophyllum bivalve was by no means rare. The following plants were seen on the highest of the peaks on the Alexandra side of the mountain, altitude about 2,700 feet :—Rubus australis var. cissoides, Ixerba brewioides, Quintinia serrata, Weinmannia sylvicola, W. racemosa, Fuchsia excorticata, Epilobium pubens, Panas colensoi, P. sinclairii, Griselinia littoralis, Alseuosmia macrophylla, Coprosma lucida, C. grandifolia, C. sp., C. fetidissina, Gaultheria antipoda, Leucopogon fasciculatus, Draco- phyllum traversii, Myrsine salicina, Podocarpus totara (much dwarfed), Callixene parviflora, Libertia micrantha, Cordyline banksii, Cordyline ** hookeri,” Phor- mium colensoi, Astelia trinervia, A. sp. (a small species with very narrow leaves and few-flowered panicles, i t Y Gahnia hectori, Hymeno- Phyllum bivalve, H. polyanthos, H. demissum, Pteris incisa, Lomaria procera var. minor, Lomaria vulcanica, Polypodium australe, Tmesipteris forsteri. One of the most interesting of the above is Cordyline ** hookeri,” the toii of the Maoris, which, on several of the higher peaks, forms small groves of from thirty to forty individuals, usually from 6-10 feet in height. Its broad mas- sive foliage and striking habit of growth render it very ornamental. None of the specimens seen were branched, and no signs of flowers or fruit were observed. Two naturalized plants were collected on the extreme point of the peak, Hypocheris radicata and Rumex obtusifolius, seeds having in all probability been accidentally brought by the surveyors, who have cleared away the native vegetation in order to obtain an unobstructed view in all irections. The view at sunrise is a most extensive one. The whole of the western coast, from the Manukau Heads to Raglan, was plainly visible. Kawhia Harbour was shut out by the western side of the mountains ; but the sea again appeared between Albatros Point and Cape Teringa. Beyond this were the Tapirimoko Ranges and the mountains on the further side of the Mokau River. Over the latter the cone of Mount Egmont stood out clear and sharp against the sky, although over 100 miles distant. Looking east- ward, the Waikato plain was stretched out at the very foot of the mountain. Behind it, the view was bounded by the Maungatautari mountain and the Patetere plateau. Southwards, looking over the top of Kakepuku, were the Rangitoto Ranges and the broken and mountainous Tuhua country. And, looking over these again, the lofty snow-clad mass of Ruapehu was easily discernible, the upper part of the cone of Tongariro appearing not far from its side. Lake Taupo was hidden by the mountains surrounding it, but portions ’of the Kaimanawa Range on the eastern or further side of the lake were clearly visible. Northwards, the view extended down the Thames and Piako Valleys, and was finally closed by the Te Aroha Range and the moun- tains behind Shortland and Grahamstown. 34 322 Transactions.— Botany. After exploring the three peaks overlooking Alexandra, a start was made to reach the highest peak by proceeding along the crest of the circuitous ridge separating the crater-like chasms before-mentioned ; but the vegeta- tion proved so excessively dense and difficult to penetrate, that after spend- ing the greater part of a day in advancing a distance certainly not exceeding a mile, the attempt was abandoned. Trees dwarfed to the height of a few feet occupied the whole breadth of the ridge, their branches spreading horizontally just above the ground. In some places progress could only be made by creeping on all-fours under the vegetation; in others even this course could not be followed, and the only means of advance was by walking on the tops of the trees themselves, the branches being so closely interlaced and matted together as to bear the weight of a man for considerable dis- tances. This mode of progression, although allowing the explorer the benefit of a good view in all directions, is not without its disadvantages, as it is not always possible to feel certain of the exact height above the ground he is travelling at, and, on reaching a weak place, he usually descends to terra firma much more suddenly than is at all pleasant or convenient. The dwarfed state. of the vegetation is evidently more caused by exposure to the strong winds that periodically sweep over the top of the mountain than to the decreased temperature due to altitude; for in sheltered places only a few yards below the level of the ridge the same species could be seen growing luxuriantly. In very exposed places it was curious to see comparatively large trees growing out horizontally from the edge of the leeward side of the ridge, their branches cut off level with its surface as regularly as if trimmed with a gardener's shears. The character of the vegetation differed in no respect from that of the peak before described, being principally composed of Ixerba brexioides and Weinmannia racemosa. The excessive abundance of the former species all over the higher portions of the mountain is a most noteworthy peculiarity. Although the flora of Pirongia is certainly a luxuriant one, and might be considered a favourable example of our forest vegetation, yet it is by no means so numerous in species as that of districts situated more to the north. In short, an examination of it clearly bears out the conclusion arrived at by several observers that the ligneous vegetation of New Zealand steadily decreases in the number of species as we proceed southwards, _ Anyone acquainted with the vegetation of the Cape Colville peninsula, or of the hilly district behind Whangarei and the Bay of Islands, or of the range of mountains between Mongonui and Hokianga, and comparing either of them with that of Pirongia, would not fail to recognize this. The number of northern species absent is not counterbalanced by the few southern plants added. CuxEsEMAN.— On the Botany of the Pirongia Mountain. 823 In describing the flora of any district it is quite as essential to point out the absence of any species of general distribution which might have been fairly expected to occur, as to record the presence of rare or local ones. It is true that to assert positively that a particular plant is absent from a locality is a somewhat hazardous statement, and one that should never be made unless founded on a careful and minute exploration—which demands time and leisure. At present, too little is known of Pirongia to make any statements of this kind, but it certainly seems desirable to draw attention to a few plants that were not observed by myself, in the hope that future explorers will do something towards ascertaining whether they are really absent from the mountains or not. Only two species of Pittosporum were noticed,—P. tenuifolium and P. cornifolium ; but surely P. eugenioides will be found near the base, and P. kirki near the summit (the first species being common elsewhere in the Waikato, and the last known to occur in at least one locality). Elaocarpus hookerianus and Pennantia corymbosa are both trees that would naturally be looked for, but neither was observed. No true myrtle was collected, although M. bullata, at least, will doubtless be found. Corokia buduleoides, so common in hilly and wooded districts near Auckland, was not seen. Some of the southern Olearias, as O. nitida and O. dentata, might have been expected. No species of Celmisia was noticed upon the mountain itself, although C. longifolia is found on the bare hills between Harapipi and Whatawhata. Gaultheria rupestris should be found on some of the rocky peaks. All the olives were absent, and only one species of Veronica and one of Pimelea were noticed. I did not observe any of the Fagi, but there seems to be no reason why F. fusca should not occur. A most remarkable peculiarity is the apparent absence of all the mountain species of Dacrydium and of Phyllocladus trichomanoides, Among ferns, Hypolepis distans, Lomaria alpina, and Aspidium aculeatum, are species which may be expected to occur on Pirongia, but which were not observed by me. Before concluding this paper, it seems not out of place to say a few words about Karioi mountain (situated on the coast, between Raglan and Aotea, and about thirty miles distant in a straight line from Pirongia). So far as can be judged from a single day’s examination, its vegetation very closely resembles that of Pirongia; in fact, when a few coast plants—as Vitex, Myoporum, Oleária albida, ete.—are excepted, the plants of the two localites are almost identical. All the southern species seen on the summits of Pirongia—as Coprosma fetidissima, Panax sinclairii and P. colensoi, Cordyline hookeri, Polypodium nove-zealandie, etc.—re-appeared on the top of Karioi. One marked difference, however, was noticed: Iwerba brexioides, which 1s pro- bably the commonest tree on the higher parts of Pirongia, is decidedly scarce on Karioi, 824 Transactions.— Botany. Arr. XLVIIL.—On the Occurrence of the Genus Sporadanthus in New Zealand. By T. F. Cuzxzseman, F.L.S. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 2nd June, 1879.] Tux plant now constituting the genus Sporadanthus was originally discovered by the well-known naturalist, Dr. Ernst Dieffenbach, in the Chatham Islands, in 1840. Neither flowering nor fruiting specimens were obtained, and it was therefore impossible to determine, with accuracy, the systematie position of the plant, although Dr. (now Sir Joseph) Hooker, in the “Flora Novæ-Zealandiæ,” ventured to provisionally refer it to the genus Calorophus. During the interval which elapsed between the publication of the ** Flora” and that of the * Hand-book," no additional information was obtained. Neither does it appear that the plant was observed during Mr. Henry Travers' first visit to the Chathams in 1863-64, for it is not mentioned in the list of species collected by him and recorded in Baron Von Mueller’s ** Vegetation of the Chatham Islands ; although casually referred to in the introduction as “ a doubtful Calorophus, mentioned by Dr. Hooker.” On Mr. Travers’ second visit in 1871, he was more successful, and I believe a good series of specimens was obtained. Some of these, including male flowers, were forwarded to Baron Von Mueller, and from their study he described the plant under the name of Lepyrodia traversii.* Shortly afterwards, fruiting specimens were also received, which proved that the plant has nucular and not capsular fruit as in all true species of Lepyrodia. This discovery neces- sitated its removal from that genus; and ultimately Baron Von Mueller pro- posed a new genus—Sporadanthus—for its reception. Under this name it appears in Mr. Buchanan’s list of the « Flowering Plants and Ferns of the Chatham Islands.” + Up to the present time, it had been supposed that Sporadanthus was entirely confined to the Chatham Islands. In January last, however, while travelling by rail from Hamilton to Ohaupo, in the Waikato District, I noticed that the extensive swamp through which the railway passes before reaching Ohaupo, was in many places entirely covered with a tall-growing Restiad, quite new to me. A few days later, I walked through the swamp for the purpose of identifying the species, and found that it was evidently the Chatham Island plant above referred to. Since then I have learnt from hia, known as the Moanatuatua swamp. Very probably it will be found in all the larger morasses of the Upper Waikato basin. * Fragmenta Phytographiæ Australie, Vol. VIII, p. 79. t Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. VIL, Art. XLVII. Armstrone.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. 825 In the Ohaupo locality, Sporadanthus is seldom found near the margin of the swamp ; but toward the centre, where there is a great depth of peat which affords ample room for its creeping rhizomes and long stringy roots, it occurs in immense abundance, often covering hundreds of acres to the exclusion of almost all other vegetation. Mr. J. Stewart, C.E., informs me that the workmen engaged in constructing the railway dreaded to encounter it, as its thick matted roots not only made it difficult to open out the drains, but were also a sure sign of a bad part in the swamp. In habit it is quite peculiar, and very distinct from any other New Zealand plant. Single clumps, with the stiff, erect stems bare at the base, but branched above, the branches all terminated with brown panicles, and gently drooping out- ward at the tips, are by no means devoid of elegance; but when seen covering large areas its general appearance is dreary and monotonous. The discovery of Sporadanthus in New Zealand proper, taken in connec- tion with the fact that Myosotidiwm (or the Chatham Island Lily, as it is absurdly called by our gardeners) is known to occur on the Snares, has de- prived the Chatham Island Florula of any claim to an endemic genus; and brings into still greater prominence the relationship existing between its vegetation and that of New Zealand; a relationship so close that hardly a dozen species out of the 200 known to inhabit the group are specifically distinct from New Zealand plants. Art, XLIX.—A short Sketch of the Flora of the Province of Canterbury, with Catalogue of Species.—By J. B. Anmstrone. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd October, 1879.] Tus short essay is intended as an introduction to the botany of that por- tion of New Zealand included within the boundaries of the Provincial District of Canterbury. For the purposes of botanical demonstration, the Province may be con- veniently divided into four districts, each differing considerably in its floral features from the others. These are— 1. The Littoral District. 2. The Banks’ Peninsula District. 8. The Lowland, or Middle District. 4, The Alpine District. The Littoral District extends along the coast, and inland about a mile and a half, usually ceasing when the land attains an altitude of twenty or twenty-five feet above the sea level. This district is composed of sand-hills 826 Transactions, — Botany. and maritime swamps. The plants of this district are few, but generally of & totally different character from those found further inland, being espe- cially adapted for growing in sand, and within the influence of the salt breezes of the ocean. Prominent among these sea-side plants are three species of Convolvulus identical with those found on the sea-shores of the old eountry, and which seem to be found in similar localities in almost all countries. We find also several species of Juncus, or rush, Senecio lautus, Selliera radicans, species of Salicornia, Spinifex, Samolus, Scirpus, Euphorbia, Mesembryanthemum, and others, which are equally common in Australia and many other countries. Of species confined to the colony we find Lepidium oleraceum, Festuca littoralis, Desmoschenus, Utricularia nove-zealandia, Pimelea virgata, numerous species of sedges, ete. In the swampy places near the coast we find a number of pretty little herbaceous plants belonging to the following genera :—Mazus, Mimulus, Ranunculus, Poa, Gratiola, Utricularia, Euphrasia, and various Orchidaceae. The Canterbury littoral district contains no indigenous trees, but patches of shrubs were common a few years ago, though in many parts of the coast they have almost entirely disappeared. These shrubs belong chiefly to the genera Coprosma, Cassinia, Plagianthus, Veronica, and Leptospermum or manuka. The native grasses of this district are neither numerous nor of a useful character, and are rapidly dying out under the influences of settle- ment, though whether their places are being filled by more useful varieties is, I think, extremely doubtful. The littoral district of Canterbury con- tains about 110 species, comprised in no less than 83 genera. Such a large proportion of genera to the species could not be found in any other similar space outside of New Zealand, The Banks’ Peninsula District.—Banks' Peninsula possesses widely differ- ent features in comparison with the district last described. Its boundaries are so well known that I need not attempt to describe them any further than to state that I include the range known as the Port Hills under this name, as they belong botanically to the same region. The peninsula approaches the North Island much more nearly in its floral character than does any other part of the province. The northern slopes of its numerous ranges are generally well grassed, and capable of carrying large numbers of stock in the natural state; though they have unfortunately been much injured by the senseless system of burning which, I am sorry to say, still prevails in this district. The southern slopes, and particularly the gullies, are, or rather were, covered with a most luxuriant vegetation of sub-tropical and Polynesian aspect. Noble trees of most various Species entirely covered the ground, and gave shelter and shade to a vast variety of shrubs of great beauty, and nearly one hundred species of ferns luxuriated in the almost AnusrRoxa.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. 827 tropical warmth of the deep ravines. Towering stems of tree-ferns, clothed with lovely mosses and Hymenophyllums, were to be seen raising their noble heads above the smaller trees and shrubs, whilst numerous lianes belonging to various species of Clematis, Rubus, Passiflora, Parsonsia, Rhipogonum, and Muhlenbeckia hung from one tree to another, connecting these giants of the forest together. Nearly all the trees of the peninsula are evergreen in character, indeed the only deciduous ones I know of are Plagianthus betulinus or ribbonwood, and the konini, Fuchsia excorticata. This constant evergreen character of our New Zealand vegetation is by most travellers described as sombre and gloomy, but I think that those who look deeper than the surface will find most beautiful features in many of the trees and shrubs composing this so-called sombre forest. The forest is composed of a remarkably large number of trees and shrubs belonging to genera of the most varied character and relationship. It is this mixed character which gives the peculiar charm to the New Zea- land flora in the eyes of a professional collector. The principal timber- trees of the forest on Banks’ Peninsula are :— 1. The totara, Podocarpus totara, a fine stout-stemmed tree of the natural order Conifere, producing a reddish coloured wood, well known to all settlers; and which is now proved to be more durable than any other New Zealand timber, and to stand better in salt water than any other timber yet tried for that purpose. The totara was formerly abundant over the whole of the peninsula, but is now becoming scarce and more difficult to obtain. It thrives very well under cultivation, but takes a long time to mature its wood and for this reason it will not be much planted. 2. The black pine or matai, Podocarpus spicata, another tree of the same family as the last, is still common on many of the spurs in the in- terior of the peninsula; though a useful tree it isin every way inferior to the totara. 8. The white pine, Podocarpus dacrydioides, is not so common on Banks Peninsula as in some parts of the colony. This tree produces a well-known white wood, not durable, but easily worked and excellent when used for inside work. The white pine likes a moist soil, and consequently does not attain any great height on the slopes of the peninsula hills. It is very difficult to cultivate, and is a very slow grower while young, but seems to grow much faster as it gets older. 4. The miro, Podocarpus ferruginea, is a much smaller tree than either of those just mentioned, and the wood is generally considered to be of inferior quality, though several instances have come under my observation where this wood has stood for several years in exposed situations without showing 828 Transactions. — Botany. any signs of decay. The miro is easy to cultivate, but is very deficient in beauty in the young state, the whole plant being of a rusty red colour. 5. The rimu or red pine, Dacrydium cupressinum, is much less abundant on the peninsula than any of the above sorts, being chiefly found on the . higher ridges, and is here a far inferior tree in beauty compared to the West Coast variety of the same species. The well-known red wood of this species makes beautiful furniture, and is also used for interior house-work, for which it is especially adapted when well seasoned. The rimu is a beautiful object under cultivation, but is liable to be killed by exceptionally hard winters. A number of fine young trees in the Christchurch Public Gardens were entirely destroyed by frost during the winter of 1878, and I have also seen it injured in the bush. 6. The cedar, Libocedrus doniana, is a very rare tree on the Peninsula, and, as far as I have been able to ascertain, is not found in any other part of the South Island. It is a beautiful tree, of graceful, upright habit, and does well under cultivation. The timber is valuable. 7. The kawaka, Libocedrus bidwillii, which in Otago grows to a large size, is here little better than a shrub. Its wood, however, is hard and durable. 8. The broadleaf, Griselinia littoralis, is abundant in the district, and produces a hard red wood of a durable nature, which has been used for various purposes. 9. The manuka, Leptospermum ericoides, is another hard-wooded tree, which has been used for the different purposes requiring strength, which it possesses in an eminent degree. It is, however, fast becoming extinct. 10. The kowhai, Sophora tetraptera var. grandiflora, belongs to the great family of pod-bearers, and is a large tree with splendid yellow flowers. It attains a height of 40 feet to 50 feet, and a diameter of 8 feet, and is much used for furniture-making, but is already becoming scarce. 11. The ribbon-wood, Plagianthus betulinus, a large deciduous tree with a very upright poplar-like habit of growth, yields a softish white timber which splits well, but is not durable. The species of Fagus or beeches, erroneously called birches by our bushmen, are very rare on the peninsula, occurring only in small quantities, and consequently their timber has never formed an item in the export trade of the district. The above-mentioned kinds of trees comprise all that are usually cut for their timber, but very many others enter into the composition of the forest and may perhaps be found to have some useful properties at present un- known. Such are:—The hini-hini, Melicytus ramiflorus. The titoki, Alec- tryon excelsum. The ivy-tree, Panax arboreum. The very curious and beauti- AnusrRoNG.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. 329 ful lancewood, Panaw crassifoliun, The tipau or matipo, Pittosporum tenui- folium, which makes the best ornamental hedge I know of. The tarata or lemonwood, Pittosporum eugenioides, a most beautiful tree also used for hedges. The hohere, Hoheria angustifolia. The mako-mako, Aristotelia racemosa. The milk-tree, Epicarpurus microphyllus, which yields a peculiar milky fluid from the inner bark. The hinau, Eleocarpus dentatus, from the bark of which the Maoris obtained a fine dye. The pokako, Eleocarpus hookerianus. "The ake-ake, Olearia forsteri, and the cabbage trees, Cordyline australis? and C. indivisa? The shrubby plants of the peninsula are ex- ceedingly numerous, belonging to many varied genera; prominent among them are species of Coprosma, Piper, Drimys, Myrsine, Myoporum, Carpodetus, Olearia, Veronica, Panag, Myrtus, ete. Several species and genera, which are common in the North Island, are totally absent from Banks’ Peninsula, and of course from the rest of the province; such are Geniostoma, Dysoay- lum, Hoheria populnea, Entelea, Atherosperma, Eugenia, Brachyglottis, Knightia, Nesodaphne, Freycinetia, ete. The large North Island genus Metrosideros has no arboreous representative in this district, though M. lucida is common much farther south. Plants which attain their southern limit on the peninsula are the Nikau palm, Areca sapida ; the karaka, Corynocarpus levigata, which is found in several small bays at the eastern point of the peninsula. Several small and stunted specimens of karaka formerly grew in Dampier’s Bay, Lyttelton. Senecio sazifragoides finds its southern limit here, and probably also Alectryon excel- sum and Libocedrus doniana. I have not been able to ascertain that any species finds its northern limit on Banks’ Peninsula, but the following plants appear to be confined to the district— Celmisia makaui and Pittosporum obcordatum. ; Banks’ Peninsula contains 850 species of flowering plants belonging to 171 genera. The Lowland or Middle District.—Under this name I include the great Canterbury plain, together with the groups of downs at each end of the province, and so much of the eastern face of the great Alpine range as lies below 2000 feet. A reference to the map will show that the district, as here defined, is & very extensive one, being about 150 miles long by 80 to 50 miles wide. The great Canterbury plain is remarkably poor in plants, and is very uniform in character. Grasses form here the principal part of the vegeta- lion, except in the numerous swampy places along the sea-coast, which before the settlement of Europeans were covered with a dense growth of Phormium tenaz, Astelia grandis, and numerous species of Cyperacez, and Juncea. 95 330 Transactions.— Botany. The most abundant grasses are the tussock-grass, Poa caspitosa, etc., an undescribed species of fescue usually referred to Festuca duriuscula, Linn., by most New Zealand collectors. The hassock-grass, Aira caspitosa, Agrostis emula ; the holy-grass, Hierochloe redolens ; the plume-grass, Dichelachne crinita ; and the blue-grass, Triticum squarrosum. Among these grasses grew a few pretty little herbaceous plants belonging to the genera Raoulia, Craspedia, Cotula wahlenbergia, Pelargonium, Geranium, and Geum, and in wet places many interesting little plants, such as species of Pratia, Ranunculus, Lomaria, Triglochin, Micromeria, and others. The vegetation of the downs does not differ materially from that of the plain, but in many of the valleys at the base of the main chain, small patches of forest are found, and have been of great value to the settlers. These small forests, or bushes as they are commonly ealled, consist of totara, miro, rimu, matai, and the two common species of birches—Fagus cliffortioides and F. solandri, When these bushes are at a low elevation, as at Waimate and Geraldine, _ the Conifere prevail; but whenever the elevation much exceeds 600 feet, the Fagus become the principal tree ; though the Coniferous species do not altogether cease until we reach a height of 2,000 feet. The smaller trees mentioned as common on the peninsula are here comparatively rare and often altogether absent. Shrubby plants are much less numerous in this district than in any other part of the colony. ü A few patches of shrubs were occasionally to be found on the plains, and were formed of Discaria toumatou, Coprosma parviflora, Leptospermum scopa- rium, Olearia virgata, and Cassinia vawvilliersii. The common cabbage-tree of the South Island, a species of Cordyline doubtfully referred to C. australis, of Hooker, was formerly rather common, and helped to enliven what was at best a dreary scene. The lowland distriet contains about 860 species arranged under 160 genera of flowering plants. The Alpine District.—This is by far the most interesting of these divisions, as it contains a very large number of most beautiful shrubs and herbaceous plants which are likely at no distant date to become the common ornaments of European gardens, for which they are eminently fitted, from their great hardiness, easy propagation, and exquisite beauty. Indeed, a demand for our native Alpine plants has already sprung up in England, and several of them are to be found in the lists of the leading London nurserymen. The Alpine district may be further divided into the following zones of vegetation, which are generally clearly defined, except in the valleys of the rivers, where the plants of the upper zone sometimes occur, having been - brought down by the floods from their usual habitat :— Armstrone.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. 331 1. The zone of Beeches. 2. The zone of shrubby Composite and Scrophularinee. 8. The zone of Herbaceous plants, à 4. The zone of perpetual Snow. The lowest of these zones—that of beeches—is principally covered with grasses of a useful character, and patches of Fagus solandri and F. clifforti- oides, which are almost the only trees of this zone. Both are valuable timber trees, and only require to be better known to be more appreciated. À number of shrubby species are common in this zone, such as species of Korokia, Coprosma, Discaria, Dracophyllum, Podocarpus, Panaz, and Pimelea, In a few breaks in the great Alpine chain, such as Arthur's Pass, a number of shrubs occur which do not properly belong to the Canterbury flora, but are escapes from the upland region of Westland, which contains very many plants different in character from those of Canterbury. Among these Westland plants may be mentioned the beautiful scarlet rata, Metro- sideros lucida, the hini, Dracophyllum traversii, and the musk-tree, Olearia colensoi, all of which are found on Arthur’s Pass, and are most magnificent plants. Some curious plants of the natural order Umbellifere, form a peculiar feature in the lower part of this zone. I refer to the species of Aciphylla, or spear-grass, which totally differ in aspect from any other known genus. This zone usually rises to about 3,800 feet, at which height the beeches generally cease suddenly, and are succeeded by dense masses of shrubby Veronicas, Olearias, and Senecios, which appear to me to form a well-defined zone. The great beauty of these shrubs has induced their cultivation in the gardens of the colony. The Veronicas number no less than forty distinct species, some of them of very extraordinary habit, and all, without exception, of great beauty. Olearia has seven or eight fine species, and Senecio six ; all of which, together with the Veronicas, are confined to the colony, and not a few of them to the province of Canterbury. This zone rises to 4500 feet. The zone of herbaceous plants ascends to 6000 feet, and occasionally to 7000 feet in the northern part of the province. It possesses an immense number of hardy species of beautiful appearance and most remarkable character. Prominent among them are the numerous species of Celmisia, the mountain forget-me-nots (Exarrhena), the well-known mountain lily (Ranunculus lyallii), and many other species of the same genus equally beautiful but not so well known, such as Ranunculus godleyanus—which is the finest of all known Ranuncwli—R. haastii, R. chordorhizos, and R. travers. The pretty white-flowered Ourisias are common, and also many others of equal beauty. The flowering plants which reach the highest elevations are Forstera sedifolia and Abrotanella inconspicua, both of which I have gathered at 7000 feet, 332 Transactions.— Botany. Cryptogams are very numerous both in this zone and the last, but are chiefly composed of Musci, Lichenes, and Fungi; Filices being represented by a very few species, chiefly of the genera Hymenophyllum, Lomaria, an Polystichum. The Fourth Zone, that of perpetual snow, yields a few species of Lichenes and Alge, but no flowering plants. The tree-ferns, which form such a prominent feature in most parts of the colony, are entirely absent from the Alps of Canterbury. The nearest approach to the arboreal form in a fern occurs in Polystichum nonindusiatum, which frequently forms curious masses of root-fibres three or four feet high, and as much in diameter. Some of the Hymenophyllee seem to be capable of enduring intense cold, for I have gathered H. villosum and H. multifidum on boulders embedded in a glacier. The Alpine district cannot be said to have been even moderately well explored, and no doubt it contains many plants as yet unknown to science. It is to be hoped that some one will be able to explore these wonderful mountains in a more thorough manner than has ever yet been done, and the result will no doubt be highly satisfactory. My catalogue gives the names of 496 species of flowering plants from the Alpine district, belonging to 164 genera. The Forage Plants of Canterbury.—The forage plants of the province are numerous and important. They have contributed more than is generally admitted to bring about the present advanced state of settlement. Of these forage plants, those belonging to the Graminee or grasses are, of course, the most important. The grasses of Canterbury number about fifty species of varied relationship and various habit. Many of them are fully equal, as pasture, to any of the imported kinds, and will, I believe, be generally cultivated when their value becomes better understood by the farmers of the province. The most nutritive grasses as far as I have been able to ascertain are . the various species of Danthonia, Microlena avenacea, and Poa foliosa ; but these are not, however, the best adapted for cultivation, owing to their general coarseness of habit, and liability to die out. The best native grasses for general farm purposes are in my opinion the following, which fully deserve a trial from all farmers anxious to improve the productiveness of their pastures :—The rice grass, Microlena stipoides. The long-awned plume grass, Dichelachne crinita. The brown bent, Agrostis canina, var. The Mount Cook bent, Agrostis youngii. The dwarf ring-grass, Danthonia semi-annularis. The blue wheat-grass, Triticum squarrosum. The short- flowered meadow-grass, Poa breviglumis. The leafy meadow-grass, Poa foliosa. The mountain tussock-grass, Poa intermedia. The native oat- Armstronc.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. 833 grass, T'risetum antarcticum, and the alpine holy-grass, Hierochloe alpina. Since the introduction of sheep and cattle these native grasses have con- siderably improved in productiveness, except where the senseless burning system has been carried to excess. Besides the species of grasses we have several other plants which might be advantageously grown. For instance, the aromatic aniseed, Angelica gingidium, of which sheep are so fond that they have exterminated it in many parts of the province. This plant seeds freely enough where pro- tected and would be easy to cultivate. Ligusticum haastii, another aromatic plant of the carrot tribe, is greedily eaten by horses and sheep and would be very easy of cultivation. L. aromaticum, L. piliferum, and L. brevistyle are similar in character. Many other sorts of plants are eaten by sheep, but I think the few here mentioned are all that are worthy of cultivation for pastoral purposes. It is to be hoped that the farmers of the province may be induced to cultivate these various forage plants, and to thoroughly test their value. Summary of Catalogue.—My stale contains the names of 750 species of flowering plants, belonging to 286 genera; and 107 species of ferns, belonging to 84 genera. The lower Cryptogams are so incomplete that I do not think it worth while to summarize them here. The largest orders are Composite with 110 species, Scrophularinee 63 species. Cyperacee 55 species, Graminee 51 species, and Umbellifere 48 species. The largest genera are Veronica, with 44 species; Celmisia, 28 species; and Ranunculus, 22 species. The great proportion of genera to species is a peculiar feature, thus no less than 109 genera have only one species each, and many others have only two. Again while 12 natural orders have 464 species, the remaining 286 species belong to no less than 65 orders, many of which have but one species each. Of the flowering plants—538 are confined to the colony, and 212 are found in other countries, 176 are found in Australia or Tasmania, and 108 species are natives of America. There are also 48 species closely allied to Australian plants, and 27 to South American. About 50 species are natives of Europe, and about 35 of Asia. Of the 286 genera enumerated in the catalogue, no less than 25 are con- fined to New Zealand. The number of species confined to the Canterbury Province cannot be stated with any exactness until the flora of the adjoining provinces is properly worked up. It does not, however, exceed 20 species, and most probably not more than a dozen. The flora of New Zealand is usually considered by European botanical authors to be closely allied to that of Australia, and no doubt the two countries have a considerable number of plants in common. But the species common to Australia and 834 Transactions. — Botany. New Zealand are not—in either country—the plants which give a character to the vegetation. When I visited Australia in 1878, I explored about half of the colony of Victoria, and a large portion of New South Wales. In this extensive tract of country, containing two or three thousand species, I only observed about thirty or forty New Zealand plants, and they were by no means abundant. The common plants of the two countries are 80 very different, that I am foreed to the conclusion that we must look elsewhere than Australia for the true relationship of our native flora. The space at my disposal here does not permit of any further reference to this very inter- esting subject, but I hope to return to it on some future occasion. The Naturalized Plants.—No account, however short, of the plants of Canterbury would be complete without some reference to those plants which have been introduced through the agency of colonization. Wherever settle- ment extends the native plants rapidly die out, and their places are filled by British and other exotic plants, mostly of a very weedy nature. Indeed, the commonest species of plants in the province, at the present time, are introduced weeds such as the sorrel, Rumex acetosella, the white clover, Trifolium repens, and numerous kinds of British grasses. These introduced plants are not all small herbs, shrubs are fairly repre- sented, and trees are not altogether wanting. There can, I think, be no doubt whatever that the native vegetation will eventually be almost, if not entirely, exterminated, and the floral features of the country altogether changed through the introduction of these foreign weeds. When we con- sider that these plants have nearly all been introduced within the last twenty years, it is certainly surprising that they have already become so abundant. : The rapidity with which these introduced plants have spread over the province of Canterbury is indeed an extraordinary circumstance. A list of the introduced plants of Canterbury was laid before this Institute by my father on the 4th October, 187 1; and I now furnish an additional list, making a total of 250 species. Most of the species contained in these two lists are common British weeds, very few of them possessing much beauty. Along the roadside, throughout the province, may be found abundance of such plants as the common knot-weed, Polygonum dryandri. The chick- weed, Stellaria media. The shepherd’s purse, Capsella bursa-pastoris. The common docks, Rumex obtusifolius and R, erispus. The so-called Cape-weed, Hypocheris radicata. The wild stork’s bill, Erodium cireutarium. The May- weed, Matricaria chamomilla. The mullem, Verbascum thapsus, and the hemlock, Conium maculatum. The most useful members of the introduced flora are the grasses, which abound everywhere, number more than forty species, and are still increasing in numbers. The common English water- ArmstronG.—-On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. 335 cress, Nasturtium officinale, has proved very troublesome in the rivers, where it attains a size and strength quite unknown in its native country. Another aquatic, the Canadian pond-weed, Anacharis canadensis, of recent introduction, is now abundant in the Avon and other rivers, where it seriously interferes with drainage and navigation. I am of opinion that the fact of the naturalization of foreign plants in New Zealand furnishes a key to the origin of large portions of the floras of other countries, notably of England and Italy. No doubt many of the plants now considered indigenous to those countries have been introduced through the indirect agency of man— perhaps very many generations ago. I think that this theory is borne out by the fact that all countries widely separated from the great masses of land, and cut off from communication as New Zealand was before its discovery by Europeans, have very few species in common with other countries, and these chiefly such as might be carried by the sea, by stray birds, or by strong winds. I have included in my catalogue of introduced plants a few species which are usually considered indigenous, but, after a careful examination of all the evidence obtainable, I am satisfied that they are really introduced, and have no claims to be considered indigenous ; these are,— Cyperus tenellus, Sporobolus elongatus, Keleria cristata, Alopecurus geniculatus, Picris hiera- cioides, and Polygonum aviculare. Economic Plants of Canterbury.—The most important economic plants of the province are the timber trees, which have already been mentioned when describing the various districts in which they are found. In the way of plants fitted for human food, the native flora has very few species and they are in every way inferior—the two or three vegetables cultivated by the Maoris not being indigenous. The fruits eaten by the natives of the South Island were the berries of the pines, those of the hinau, the karaka, the poroporo, Solanum aviculare, and Aristotelia racemosa ; few or none of which would be considered eatable by Europeans. The sea-side cress, Lepidium oleraceum and the New Zealand spinach, Tetragonia trigyna, have been used by English settlers as pot-herbs. Plants yielding fibre are both numerous and important. Foremost among them are the two species of flax or Phormium, which are now so well known throughout the world. The two kinds of cabbage-tree or Cordyline yield a fine soft white fibre, nearly as strong as and probably more valuable than the Phormium. Astelia grandis also yields a soft brown fibre of considerable strength, and is easily. cultivated. Some of the coarser kinds of grasses, such as the tussock, Poa cespitosa, Aira, Apera, etc., would no doubt yield fibres of some value. The whole of the fibre-plants mentioned here are very easy of cultivation, 336 Transactions.— Botany. and ought certainly to become a considerable source of income to the colony. There are, no doubt, many other plants found in the province from which valuable products of some kind might be obtained, and it is to be hoped that more attention will be given to this subject than has been in the past. In conclusion, may I express a hope that some of the members of this Institute may be induced to study the native plants of the province, as much remains to be done in ascertaining the geographical and altitudinal range of the various Alpine species, and many new plants may yet be discovered in the more secluded mountain valleys. In the Cryptogams much remains to be done in all the districts, in both collecting and arranging the species which have not been carefully sought for by any collector. : The catalogue attached to this paper I have made as complete as possible. The whole of the species enumerated have been collected by my father and myself, and the identification may be relied upon as correct. My studies and explorations, however, have been carried on during what little time could be spared from my regular employment, and I have, there- fore, no doubt but that many additions will be made to our knowledge of the flora of Canterbury by future observers. — Catalogue of Canterbury Plants. Abbreviations.—P., Banks Peninsula ; L., Littoral; M., Lowland, or Middle Distriet ; A., Alpine; 3, Abundant; 2, Local; 1, Comparatively rare. All those not marked * are cultivated in the Christchurch Public Gardens. | PHJENOGAMS. Exoczws. RawuwcuLACEX. 8—80. *Ranunculus sinclairii, Hk.f. A.1. Clematis indivisa, Willd. P.M.2. hirtus, B. et Sol. P.M.A.8. hexasepala, Fst. P.M.2. multiscapus, Hk.f. P.M.A.8. fotida, Raoul. P.M.2. *subseaposus, Hk.f. 1 p ora, Cunn. 2. *macropus, Hk.f. 2 arata, Armstrong. L.M.A.2 laris, B. et Sol. P.M.2 oliata, LL limosella, F. Muell. M.A.2 colensoi, Hk.f. P.M.1. *inundatus, B. et Sol. M.38. Ranunculus lyallii, Hk.f. A.9. *acaulis, B. et Sol. L.M.2. iraversii, Hk.f. triternatus, Kirk : pinguis, Hk.f. P.M.A.9. *gracilipes, Hk.f. A.1 godleyanus, Hk.f. A. 4—6000ft. 1. *pachyrhizos, Hk.f. A.1 geranifolius, Hk.f. A.2. sessiliflorus, Br. E chordorhizos, Hk,f. A.2. *Caltha novæ-zealandiæ, Hk. A.1. haastii, Hk.f. A. 5-7000ft. 1. *erithmifolius, Hk.f. A.1 |... MaAGNOLIACEE. sericophyllus, Hf. A.9, Drimys colorata, Raoul. P.M.8. Armstrone.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. Cru 6—11. XNasturtium MN. DC. M.A.2. Sisymbrium nove-zealandie, Hk.f. A.1, Cardamine ROMAN Il. PMAS. *depressa, Hk.f. A.2. 2—4000ft. fastigiata, Hk,f. A.2. 8000ft. TEAM DE novee-zealandie, Hk.f. A. 0 pase REL Fst. L.M.2. sisymbrioides, Hk V MAR. eren sum, B. et S., var. alpinum. Noto australe, Hk.f. A. 2- 000ft. olan, H Hk f. A. 8000ft. Vior 8—8. yee filicaulis, Hf, Hk, f. he i AA. yallii, Hk, baoen, 2s P.M.A.8. I een ramiflorus, Fst. P.2. lanceolatus, Hkf. -PMAL *micranthus, Hk.f. P.1 Hymenanthera crassifolia, Hk Je M. angustifolia, HEF AA Prrrosroreæ. 1—6. Pittosporum tenuifolium, B. et S. P.M.8. colensoi, Hk.f. M.A.2. *rigidum, Hk.f. A.1. obcordatum, Raoul. P.1. fasciculatum, Hk,f. A. 2-4000ft. eugenioides, A. Cunn. P.M.8. CaRYOPHYLLACEZ. 8—8. E parviflora, B. et S. P.M. A.2. 3-7000ft. 3. gracilenta, Hk. A.8 *ColSbanthus. quitensis, Bar. P.M. roughii, = kf. billardieri Fenzl. A.8. subulatus, Hk.f. A.9. acicularis, Hk. 2. * Sper i Is dM. Portutacem. 8—3. Claytonia australasica, Hk. L.M. .A.8. *Montia fontana, Linn. L.M.A.8. *Hectorella cæspitosa, Hk.f. A.1. 4—6000ft. 937 EE. 1—3. um, Fst. P.M.2. ee Hyp RICIN Hypericum i peas japonicum, Thun Marva T PAES divariatus ru LIE bet , Cunn. M.A.8 lya Ilii Ti. : C T 5000ft. Hoheria A ciun Raoul. P.M. 3. "Trina 2—6. Aristotelia amez Hif. PMS. colensoi, Hk,f. A. 2000—4000ft. i me Pak F. E Elæocarpus Kookariétris, Raoul. dentatus, Vahl. P.M.2. Lisez. Linum monogynum, Fst. L.M.P.8 *marginale, A. Cunn. Probably introduced. 1. GERA Geranium patulum, fa. E M. A.G. diss Pelucgnniun clandestinum, T Her. Oxalis incite Linn. L.P.M.A.8. stricta, Linn. M.P.A.2 P2 Fst, A.9. 8-6000ft. Diosmacez. Melicope age: Foes, P.M.8. OLACINER. Pennautia corymbosa, Fst. P.3. TACKHOUSIEE. Sr Stackhousia minima, Hk. A. 1. 8000ft. RuawNEX. Discaria toumatou, Raoul. L.M.P. A.8. 2. SAPINDACEXE Dodonza viscosa, Fst. L.P.2. Alectryon excelsum, DC. P.3. ANACARDIACEE. Corynocarpus levigata, Fst. Banks enn sula only; perhaps an cape from cultivation. pees RIARIEE. 1—3. Coriaria ruscifolia, Linn. P.M.A.3. 86 838 Coriaria thymifolia, Humb. A.2. angustissima, Hk.f. A.8. P ONACER. 4—12. Carmichelia nana, Col. L.P.M.8. (?) kr net HRK AA 8. gran : aem Col. { ? F P.M.2. rn LPMB monroi, H.f. A. M. 2. Notospartium carmichelie, Hk.f.M.1. Swainsonia nove- zealandis, Hk.f. A. ae aie ae Jacq. P.M.8. andiflora, Ait. P. Ros Pe Rubus Busta FK. P. schmideloies, A. Cun. "Leáüves Bee ie. J A enel cordate. cissoides, A, n. Leaves linear-oblon a pauperat, J.B.A. Leaves re- uced to ribs. Potentilla peeve a EE Raoul. L.M. AP. B. Geum magellanicum, Com. et parviflo Com. M.A.8 *uniflorum, Bue. h. A.2 Acsena vasis am Sag Fst. ». M. A.8. dscendens, Vahl. P.M.A. nove-zealandiw, Kirk. P.M. 9. *mierophylla, Hk.f. M.A. 2. inermis, Hk.f. A.9. SAXIFRAGER, *Donatia oe Hif. À. 8—5000ft. 1 SP eI i *Quintinia serrata, Cunn. M.P.A.1 Loose serratus, Fa, .M. 8. C xs Tillea moschata, DC. P.M.A.8. inclairii, Hk. P.M.A.9. muscosa, Fst. FEM L Drosera "Drosera SEERE Hk x eu 9. *spathula *auriculata, Back M. t Transactions.— Botany. Haron Haloragis Mates tn =. P M.A.8. tetra b. M.A.8 , Lab. depressa, Hk.f. A. 2 4000, 2. ora, Kirk. A. 3000ft. 2. *aggregata, Buch. A.2 micrantha, L.M. fa 9. oe elatinoides, Gaud. M. aaki Hkf. M.A. 8. = ‘pedunculatum, Ak f. M.1. Gunnera monoica, Raoul. = M.P.A.2. *prorepens, HI.f. M.A. 2. Callitriche stagnalis, L. L.M.A.9. Mmrackx. 8—8. Espana s scoparium, Fst. P. Be Te 8. des, Rich. P.L.M. 2. Mc icon lucida, Menz. A.1-8000 hypericifolia, Cunn. P.M.A. 9. colensoi, H s P.2 scander S, eS. P. 2. Myrtus raer ein: Hk pf gordo Hk.f. s Na Onac: m. 2—17. Fuchsia exeorticata, Linn * P.M. 8. colensoi, Hk.f. Epilobium pendulum, B.S. P.M. purpuratum, Hk 2 z a A. 8. linneoides, H.f. cropus ue. PALA confertifolium, Hk ^S M. A 8. Pas Passiflora iniri - we Se Pa, Ficomem, 2—2. Nasirin australe, B. et Tetragonia trigyna, Bas. L.9. Umerturere. 11—48. Hydrocotyle elongata, Cunn. P.M.A.2 AnusTRoxG.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. *Hydrocotyle americana, Linn. P.A. 8. asiatica, Linn. P.L.M.A.8. dissecta, Hk.f. P.M.A. 3 nove- adque DG; *moschata, s. eges qe Cen A.M. 1. T. Asi. Pozoa pes pt Hk J. A. 3-6500ft. 8. haastii, H 0 re Hk;f. A roughii, Hk,f. A. 4000ft. 2. Crantzia lineata, Nutt. L.P.M.A.8. var. — M.8. Apium australe, Thoms. UL. 3. *filiforme, Hk. Eryngium illoa. Lab L.8. Oreomyrrhis colensoi, Hk Jf. A.M.8. A. 8. haastii, Hk *ramosa, Hk.f. n.sp. (?) A. 200 Aciphylla — Fst. L.M.P.A.8. colenso M.A. 8 lyallii, Hk Je eem A. 2—5000ft. 3. Hk.f. ontana, Armstrong. A. 8000 *erenulata, J.B.A. A. 4-6000ft. es Hk.f. A. 4—6000ft. 1. Ligusticum haastii, F. Muell. A. 2—500 *brevistyle, Hk EK A. filifolium, Hk.f. A. 2-3000ft. 2. carnosulum, Hk.f. A. 3-5000ft. piliferum, Hk.f. P.A. 2-4000 ft. week: B.et S. = M.A. 8. imbricatum, Hk, oliolatum, Hkf. A. S000R. i. CU n gingidium, H RE LPRM A.3. Hk.f. decipiens, — kf. P.M.3 e brachii sed L.P.M.A.8. ARALIACE 9. Panax simplex, Fat. P. M. A.8. "edgerleyi, Hkf. A.1. 2000ft. M. *Panax APARECE Hk.f. *linea ongissim ; colensoi, Hk.f. P.A. 1-4000ft. 8. ei oreum, Ist. P.M.8 P.A. Schefllora digitata, Fst. ConNEX Griselinia littoralis, — P.M.8. is von A. P.M.2. —2. 8. OOft. . | Corokia deseen Raoul. 4 M.A.8. dentin e colens Hk A pt 2. tetrapetalus, A.2. *tenuiflorus, Hi kf, A2, decussatus, Kirk. A.8. *flavidus, Hk. f. A.2. micranthus, Hk.f. P.M. *Tupeia antarctica, Ch. et Sehl. *Viscum salicornioides, Cunn. iaraa Oliver. P. A.3. P.M.2. P.M.2. Coprosma erae Fst. o Raoul. depressa, Col. (2) "AB. microcarpa, Hk ; (? et +: j^ 2. P.M.A Asperula perpusilla, Hi. J- are P.M 3. Nertera depressa, B. et Sol. P.A.8, A.2. um umbrosum, tenuicaule, A. Cunn. SITE. Compo: 20—11 Olearia colensoi, Hk.f. A. 96006. i, nitida, Hk.f. P.M.A.8. 9840 Transactions.— Botany. ‘Olearia dentata, Hk.f. A. 1-2500ft. diem ; M.A.8. avicennizfolia, Hi P P.M.A.8. virgata, Hk.f. À.8. ten Ak. ata, Armstrong. Al. *Celmisia densiflora, HX.f. A. 2 discolor, Hk.f. A. $8008. 8. walkeri, Kirk. A.1 hieracifolia, Hk. Ai. *haastii, Hk.f. ^y S o 2. incan *sinclairi i Hk ds x 2. oa em bg Hk f M.2. coriacea, H. de PAS. PA ,H "i p 3-6000ft. 3. linöaris. J.B. A., n. sp. Leaves z 4 inches long, linear, sind Hk, f. À B000R. à. Vittadinia australis, Rich. L.M.P.8 *pinnatifida, Hk 2 AI Brachycome sinelairii, Hk.f. A. *Abrotanella pusilla, Hk.f. A. 36000 ft. 1. *inconspieua, Hk.f. A, 3—6000 ft. 1. Cotula as, Linn. L.M.P. rad Cunn. M.A *atrata, MEX. A. s dus. 2. Cotula pic ee M.A.8. filifor Hk.f. MA. pectinata, Hkf. 7 .M.3. squalida, Hk.f. P.M.8. minuta, Fst. ae fimbriata, DC. alpin a Un ck. P.M.A.8 nuila! fulvida, Hi f. P.M.A.1. vauvilliersii, Hk. .P.M.b.A.8, sus, Hk depre J AS. Raoulia austenlis, Hk.f. L.M.P.A.8. tenuicaulis, Hk.f. P.M.A.8. i A.M.2. , Hk ff. MAS il dana prostratum, Hk f. P.A. M.1. ee ds Hk A -s M.A.8. *luteo-album, L L.M.P.A.8. grandiceps, Hk.f. A.2. involucratum, Fst. Yi PAS. áb. anid Yita, Hk.f. ve 3-7000 žsinclairii, Z A. 8—4000ft. 2. Hk.f, - nov., Mt. White. A.1. pes ee prenanthoides, wer M.A.2. ta « LMPA *haastii, Hk.f. A s lautus, Fst. L.M.P. 8. P.M.L. | | E a i Armstrone.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. Senecio gas Horn, var. banksii. ly aii, 7 kf. A.B. sisdophilus, Raoul, P.2. elwagnifolius, Z7k.f. A. 2-4000 buchanani, Armstrong. A. 8000 bi dvi lis, Hkf. A39. cassinioides, Hk. A.8. pottsii, Armstrong. A. 4-5000 ve Traversia a Hk f. A. 2- 8000ft. 1 sme forsteri, HE — hey PA. Crepis novæ-zealan f. M.A.2. Taraxacum dens- eons, "ba. var. M.P.A.2. Bonai bes. Vil. STYLIDIEE, 2—5. Forstera sedifolia, Linn. fil. A. 4— nella, Hk Jf. A. 4-7000ft. 2. “Halos clavigerum, Hk,f. A. —6000ft. 2. seien Hk.f. A. 8-6000ft. 2. Hk.f. A. 3-6000ft. 2. iar ROME 1—3 gnus ce gracilis, DC. L.M.P. adis DC. M.P.8. saxicola, DC. A.M.8. Los 8—7 Lobelia anceps, Thun. P.M.A.2. roughii, Hkf. A. 4-5 : B. En 2—83. oper s reo Br. da, Fst. A.P.8, errs tasmaniea, Hk.f. A.2. Epacripacex. 6—17. Cyathodes acerosa, Br. P.3. empetrifolia, Hk A À.9. colensoi, Hk Jf. tus, Rich. P.M.8 frazeri, Cunn. L.M.P.A.3. Pentachondra pumila, Br. A.8. *Epaeris meia Hk f. A.2. 941 Archeria traversii, Hk.f. A.8. Dracophyllum traversi, Hk f. A. 8000ft. 1. scoparium, Hk.f. A.3. uniflorum, Hk.f. M.P.A.3. rosmarinifolium, Fst. A.8. *muscoides, Hk,f. A.8-6000ft.8. MyrsInE&. Myrsine urvillei, DC. = eee’ Cunn: P. A.8 umm a, Hk "ds P.A. 2. reser E. Samolus repens, F. Muell. L.8. APOCYNEX. Pom ri Raoul. P.M.8. rose P.M.8. pss Logania colt, 1 hf. vA: 8. *tetragona, Hi.f. im "es TIANEÆ. Gentiana diner Fst. M: P.A.8. nov andis, Armstrong. A. pleurogynoides, Griseb. M.A.2. saxosa, Fst. A.2. hookeri, J. B. 4. A. G. sax- ,Hkf. A2. *Exarrhena petiolata, Hk.f.(?) A.2. macrantha, Hk.f. A.3. CowvoLvuLACEE. 2—5. Convolvulus tuguriorum, Fst. P. ru *Dichondra repens, Fst. 342 SoraNERX. Solanum aviculare, Fst. P.8. radicans, Hi KF. à Mazus umilio Br. lx M RS, Gratiola nana, Benth. P.M.3 Limosella ten ae i — Veronica stricta, B.e vernicosa, Hk.f. anomala, P.8 Armstrong. A. 8000ft. elliptica, Fs. P.M.2. e [ hau samen ppan A. 2000ft. ale Hk.f. A.2. aS aeri qe Armstrong. À. —4000ft. ifolia, Hk.f. eee eod Armstrong. auco-cerulea, Armstrong. A.2. lycopodioides, Hay, À cha, Hkf. A. 00008. L A. 4-5000ft. 2. hectori, Hk.f. salicornioides, Hk.f. A.2. armstrongii, Johns. Hort. A. | 4—6000ft, 9, M Mab HkJ. PAS. haastii, Hk.f. A. 4—6000ft. 9 epacridea, Hk. A. 4-7000ft. 9. *macrantha, Hk.f. A. 4 4—6000ft. 2, agra F. Muell. M.2. sp. n M.2. gracilis, Armstrong. A.2. - lavaudi Transactions.— Botany. Veronica lanceolata, Benth. canescens, Kirk. L.M. loganioides, 5000ft. 1. M.P.1. A.8 Armstrong. tX. adem 6 aS A. 8—5000ft. 1. canterburiense, Armstrong. ,. 4-50001 E ontana, Armstrong. A.8000ft.2. *Pygmea ciliolata, Hk A.2 vinaris, Hk.f. A. 2 Onrisih macrophylla, Hk.f. P.A macrocarpa, Hk.f. A. 8000ft. i *sessilifolia, Hk.f. = 2. cespitosa, Hk.f. *glandulosa, Hk.f. Fs 2. ?) Euphrasia cuneata, Fst. L.M.8. mon M.P.8 Neidab. Hk f. A. 8-5000ft. 8. anta retica, Benth. A.4—6000ft. 8. Len m. Utricularia Siu neat HJ. L. monanthus, Hk.f. L.M.P.A.8. VERBENACEE. 92. 9. Teucridium parvifolium, Hk.f. L.P. Myoporum lætum, Fst. P.8. Lasnrm. 2—2, , | Micromeria cunninghamii, Benth. L. 3 *Seutellaria novee-zealandiz, ne PAB. PLANTA 1— *Plantago leoni Tapes, N. A.P.2. gera, Hk.f. A.9. spathulata, Hk J. M.A.8. raoulii, Decaisne. P.M.A.8 DIACEZE, CHENOPOD 5—8. pa ire ee age dem I. P.3. alicornia australis, Fst. 3 3. : Paronycuine. | Scleranthus biflorus, Hk.f. L.M.P.8. i Poryconeæ. 8—7. | Polygonum decipiens, Br. L.M.3. Armstrone.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. Muhlenbeckia adpressa, Lab. M.P. Muhlenbeckia adpressa, var. truncata. RI complexa, Meis. L.M.P.A;8. L.M.P.A.8. ` *neglectus, Kirk. . Monm. ee dentata. greed aay H aren un prostrata, Vahl. yalli, Hk.f. A. *sericeo-villosa kf. *Drapetes dieffenbachii, Hk, Hd *lyallii, Hkf. A. 2. SANTALACER, ong veg Hk.f. M.A. 2- 00ft. 2 Evp Euphorbia pinkie: L3 m E9. .. CUPULIFERÆ®. 1—4. Fagus menziesii, Hk.f. zs qe Hk.f. P.8. Dendrobium UT Lind. P. M.2. ‘pygmeum, Smith. P.2 taat ia cunninghamii, Hk. db. ML P.2 Cyrtostylis oblonga, Hk.f. A.P.1. Corysanthes triloba, Hk,f. P.M e “rotundifolia, Hif. MV2. *rivularis, Hk.f. P 948 Fagus fusca, Hk.f. P.M. 1. solandri, Hk,f. P. CMS 3. eliffortioides, Hk y P.(?)M.A. 8. Urticacez. 4—6. Epicarpurus dicun Ml Raoul. PAM. 8. Vins ferox, Sae *Australina pusilla, Gud e m Pr Æ. Macropiper Pea Seem. P. 2. CONIFERÆ®. 4—18. Libocedrus doniana, End. P4, bid Hkf. A. 2-8300ft. 8. Podocarpus cvm Don. P. A. 8. P.M. 8 8. dacrydioides, Rich. M. 8 PMNS 4 Dacrydium eupressinum, Sol. P.M. ‘eolensoi, Hk. A. UR axifolium Hkj. MN alpinus, HK, sa A. 8000. ft. 8 ENDOGENZE., Bei reat foliata, Hk.f. A.1. trullifolia, Hk.f. | Chiloglottis cornuta, Hk J. (9). P. *Lyperanthus antarcticus, Hk.f. . p. L.M.8. Thelymitra longifolia, Fst. *uniflora, Hk,f. d Prasophyllum colensoi, a M.8. *nudum, Hk.f. Ma Inmez. 1—4, Libertia c Spreng. P.8. vestioides, Klatt. P.2 ora, ones a M. 3. gran P.A.2. *micrantha, Cunn. MELANTHACES. Anguilaria nove-zealandie, Hk fe MS. M.8. macrantha, Hk.f. B: ME porrifolia, Spr. L.M.8. *Calad HERE APA. *]yallii Hkf P.2. bifolia, H kf. A. 1. Pterostylis stg Br. L.M. graminea, Hk.f. L.M.2. deere ks. A1. Hy»oxrpE. | Hypoxis pusilla, Hk.f. M.8. 844 Typ Typha latifolia, len -*angustifo lia, Linn. NAIADE minor, De MP. A.8 *Lemna Triglochin triandrum, Mich. M.L. Potamogeton natans, Linn. M.P.L. A.2. *gramineus, Linn. P.1. *compressus, Linn PAR *Ruppia moi asg tan 2. Lucr —15. ieee sands. Fst. Callixene *linearis, Hk.f. A.P.9. Arthropodium candidum, Raoul, Anthericum — Col. L.M.P.A.8. Pho x, Fst. L.M.P.A.8. colen unii, "Tt *Herpolirion nove- -zealandis, Hk. A.2. Patmex, Areca sapida, Fst. P. 3. UNCEZ. 3. Juncus vaginatus, Br. *australis, HEF MB. P * Transactions.— Botany. Res 2—4 Leptocarpus ocius, Rich. L.M.8. *Gaim: ciliata, Hk.f. A.8 ert Hk.f. A.9 *pallida, Br. A.9. CvPrRAcEE, 14— *Cyperus ustulatus, Rich. M. P.2. *tenellus, Linn. f. M.P.8. Na- turalized ? Scheenus axillaris, Hk.f. M.P.A.8. “tenax, Ak fe P.A. apii ie A P. M.A.8. Carpha alpina, B eris fluitans O) ^L M s: 8. aritimus, Linn. PE *laeustris, Linn. "| Eleocharis sphacelata, Br. grac a, Br. M. grac *Isolepis nodosa, Br. roli P.M nus spiralis, H. kf. L.3. Spa gem Here Vahl. P.M. *Cladiuzm —— Br. veins 2. *tere MAR s TA *jun unceum, *Gahnia uir 'H k i M. 9. $ ia, Hk, “Lepidusperma tetragona, Lab, L. *Oreobolus pumilio, Br. A. 2 — s leptostachya, Raoul. “P.M. 8. Faustralis, Pers, P.M.A. 8. *ferruginea, Boott. P.A.9. “rupestris, Raoul. P, 2. *b. , CX Carex ruo sire P Spices, Kine *subdola, Boo MA. 2. AnusrRoxa.—On the Flora of the Province of. Canterbury. Carex ternaria, Fst. L.M.P.A. 3. “testacea, Sol. M.P.A.9. *raoulii, Boott. P.M.A. 2 lucida, Boott. P.A. 8. *pumila, Thun. L.M.P.A. 3. *forsteri, Wahl. M.P.A. 3. *cataracte, Br. A.P. 9. breviculmis, Br. A.P. 3. da, Cav. P.A.M.-2 *dissita, Sol. P.M.A.2. *lambertiana, Boott. M.A.2. *vacillans, Sol. 2 GRAMINEE —b1. Microlena stipoides, Br IMG ry ra avenacea, Hk fe POM. B, polynoda, Hk.f. P.8. doin geniculatus, L.) Natu- ralized. Hierochloe or p L.M.P.A.8. a, R. et Sch. A. 2—5000ft. 2. *Spinifex mune im^ a *Panieum imbeci Trin. P2. Zoysia pungens, Willd. L.M.P.8. Echinopogon ovatus, Pal. P.M.A.8. Dichelachne sciurea, Hk.f. L.1. erinita, Hk "n M.P Apera arundinac ARS. P.M.A.8. *(Sporobolus ena. Naturalized. P.A.8. Agrostis canina, Linn., var. P.M.A.8. *parviflo r A.8. M 345 * Agrostis reg H k É A.2. quadriseta, A. fa KCN semi-annularis, Br. M.P.A.8. *pauciflora, Benth. A. 8000ft.3. *buchanani, Hk.f. *Aira ezspitosa, Pal. L.M. icem cristata). Naturalized. M 2. omn Trin. M.P. A.2. *youngii, Hk. f. A.2 Glyceria stricta, Hk te L.M.P.3. P seabspieatum, Pal. PAB, cespitosa, Fst. M.P.A.8. P. svis, Br intermedia, rene P.A.M.9. yi, Hk.f. Festuca Jupes Br. soopaa; Hkf. L. *sp. F. duriuscula, Hk Jf. non Linn. M.A.8 Bromus arenarius, Tu. L.1 Triticum multiflorum, B. et 8. MP. *youngii, Hk. A.2. Br. L.M.8. *setifoli HE 9 M.2. squarrosum, B. et S. M.P.A.8 TEE xo a *Gymnostichum gracile, Hk.f. P. 1. CRYPTOGAMIA, ES. 84—107. Lastrea hispida, J. Sm. P.M.8 Niphobclus apee, Fst. - P.M.8. Tae vestitum, Presl. P.M. Phymatodes pustulata, Presl. P.M.8 billardieri, Presl. P.M.3 Dyctimia lanceolata, J. Smith. P.? ogramme rutefolia, Hk. A.9 eptophylla, Des. P.M.A.3. *Playlo 7 rotundifolia, J. Sm. 2 Grammitis australis, Swtz. P.A.8. Okeuopiaturs Sr seer t J Sm. P. A.2, P. Goniopteris mp Fst. P.M.8. Lastrea velutina, A. Rich. P.3. glabella, J. Sm. P.M.8. corinceum, Swítz. richardi, E. cystostegia, Hk. AQ Arthropteris tenella, J. Sm. Pl Hypolepis tenuifolia, Bern. P.M.A.8. P.M.A.8. P.M.2. M.8 distans, Hk. P.M.8 rugulosa, Lab D. M A3. Cystopteris nove-zealandie, J.B.A. C. fragilis, Hk.f. non Bern, P.M.A.8. Cyathea smithii, Hk.f. P.M.2. 88 846 Cyathea dealbata, Swz. P.M.8. Alsophila colensoi, Hk.f. P.M.A.2. Dicksonia fibrosa, P. = 8. *semivesti l.p FAL arrosa, Sws. Hymenophyllum polyanthos, Switz. lanata, Col. P.M.1 PK. v Microlepia novee- -zealandis, J. Sm. .M.1. flabellatum, Br. P.À.1. Dennstedtia dubia, J: Sm. P.M.1. demissum, Swtz. P.A.M.1 Lindsaya aris, Swz. scabrum, Rich .M.1. Adiantum adno, Wild. P.M.8. crispatum, Wall. P.M.1. assimile, Sue. P.M.1. © pulcherrimum, Col. P.M.1. vum, Ap Um dilatatum, Swtz .M.1. spid MA. villosum, Col. A.B Nothochlena distans, Br. P.M.A.8. mon -— Kirk. H. tunbridg- Cheilanthes sieberi, Kunze. P.M.A.8. ense var. (?). Cheilanthes sieberi, var. deltoides. C. tun brisa, Sm. P. M.A.3. tenuifolia, Kirk, non Swz. P.8. » var. wilsoni. P.A.M.2. Histopteris incisa, — P.M.A. 8. ciliatum, Swtz. M.1. Pteris tremula, R. Br. P.M.1. multifidum, Swtz. P.M.A.2 Ornithopteris ésctilenta, Agdh. P.M. bivalve, Swtz. P.1. A.L. armstrongii, Hk.f. A.B seaberula, Agdh. P.M.A. 8. inimum, Rich, A.P.8 Lomaria elongata, Bl. P.M.1. sruginosum, Carm. P.1 alpina, Spreng. P.M.A.8 lyallii, Hif: P.1 banksu, Hk.f. P.1. malingn, Hk. P.1. *pumila, Raoul. P.1. Trichomanes reniforme, Fst. M.1. nigra, Colenso. P.M.1. ile, F: 2 discolor, Willd. P.M.8 venosum, Br .9. duplieata, — EN. F. elongatum, Cunn. P.M.1. GY J: . L. dura, Moore, colensoi, Hk.f. Moe. Schizwa dicho toma, Pi Ws AS Col. P.M.1. Todea pfeetécer Kew Presl. P. rotundifolia, Raoul. L. fluvia- M.3. e k f. non Spreng. P.M. superba, Col. P.M.2. Ophioglossum gramineum, Willd. L. Ter Br, PM 2 M.P.A.2. minor, Spreng. P.M.A. 3. ostatum, Br. M.1. , Spreng. P.M.A. 8. Stainton, du P.M.A.8. Asplenium lucidum, Fst. L.P. 2 um, A. MB. MJ obliquum, Fst. P. 1. Botrychium dissectum, Muhl. P.M.1. obtusatum, PZ scleropium, Homb. M. 2. trichomanes, Linn. P.A. 8. flabellifolium, Cav, P.M.A. 8. flaccidum, Fst. P.M.8. bulbiferum, Fst. P.M. 8 appendiculatum, Lab. P.M.2. colensoi, Moore. P.M. 3. hookerianum, Col. P.M. 8. richardi, Hk.f. P.M. 2. faleatum, Lamk. P.M.1 Gleichenia microphylla, Br. A A. 1. dicarpa, Br. P.M.A.1 alpina, Br. A.M.1 Transactions.—Botany. Gleichenia cunninghamii, Hew. P.A. M. virginicum, Willd. M.P.A.8. Lycopopiaces. 8—8. S drummondii, Kunze. L.M.P.2. Lycopodium selago, Linn. P.A.3. varium, Br. billardieri, Spring. A.P.2 laterale, Br. a osum, Fst. E Tm mosipteris for forsteri, End. P. 2—.9. Azolla ——€— Br. "M.P. A.3. Armstrone.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. Pilularia novee-zealandix, Kirk. A.2. Isozrtacez. 1—2. sca ontani. Kirk. A.8. . Smaller than I. montana; spores not seen. A.1, t Musar. f None. VÉ. tha iein are cultivated in the urch Public Gardens hanes ee seti, Wilson. a, Wils. Sphagnum cuspidatum, Ehr. 0- zela indicum, Mitt. vipes, Wi Symblepharis peichatilis, Wils. umila, Mitt. Fissidens adiantoides, Hed. asplen ioides, Swte. pv menziesii, Taylor. Dicranodontium lineare, Mitt. s, Mitt Tamai dik siberecus Mitt. exipes Trichostomum Tingulatum, Wils. h. australe, Mitt. Tortula papillosa, Wils. muelleri calycina, Schweg. Didymodon papillatus, Wils. inte: , Mitt. erubescens, Mitt. Desmatodon nervosus, Schimper. Distichum capillaceum, Schp. Ceratodon purpureus, Bridel. Eucalypta australis, Mitt. Hedwigia ciliata, Ehr. Braunia humboldtii, Schimp. Schl rere ta ence Schwa lea longirostre, Schwg. i schwg. asperulum, Mitt, Orthotrichum luteum, Mitt. Zygodon intermedius, Schimper. brownii, Schw reinwardtii, Bod: menziesii, Mitt itt Leptostomum inclinans, Br. gracile macrocarpum, Br. Orthodontium sule: atum, Wils. Mielichoferia tenuiseta, Mitt. Bryum pyriform é . corum, Bo ory. fe "n Taylor. billardieri, Sch 847 848 Transactions.— Botany. Bryum nutans, Schreb. argenteum, Linn. blan j imum, Schreb. torquescens, Schimp. pachytheca, Muell. ureum, Web. et Mohr. it. Conastomum australe, Swtz. pusillum, Wils. Cryptopodium bartramioides, Brid. Bartramia halleriana, Hed. papillata, Wils. gr en Dawsonia superba, Grev cectangium compactum, Schwg. Seiuroide Meteorium molle, W: acile, Wils. menziesii, Wils. kerri À spininervium, Wils. marginatum, Wils, uell, Hues, ffe, Wils. relaxum, decussatum, Wils aciculare, Lab. ochlearifolium, Schwg clandestin ils. sblemydophyllum, Wils. inflatum divulsum io extenuatum, Bra. AnusrRoNG.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. Hypnum a ean Linn, rid. eris, Brid. amblyophylla, Wils; flexuosa, Jy Hookeria cristata, Arnott. flexicollis, Mite. Daltonia nervosa, Wils. Hepatiom. Gymnomitrium concinnatum, Corda. Jungermannia posed) Ta colorata, Lehm rigonalis, T'ay. uhr: dentata, (Radd.) Mitt. Chandonanthus squarrosa, (Hk.) Mitt. Temnonea pulchella, Mitt. Plagiochila conjugata, Lindb. deltoidea Tae, annotina, Lindb. incurvifolia, Tayl. lyallii, Mitt. Lophocolea pallida, reai meray Tai 349 Lophocolea triacantha, Tayl. novæ-zealandiæ, Nees. lenta, Tayl muricata, Ne Scapania perder Gott. Gottschea lehmani S. poea Nees. tuloides, Tayl. Chiivecwniar doctas Mitt. billardieri, [o is, Mitt. Adelanthus falcatus, Mitt Tylimanthus saccatus, Mitt. e microphylla, Lindb. capilligera, Lindb. involu Isotachis ly itt. Trichocolea tomentilla, Nee. ata, Nees. Sendtnera tagellifera, N Nees. Polyotus claviger, ni papillata, Mitt. rufescens, Lindb. nudipes thymifolia, Nees, tumida, : 89 850. Transactions.— Botany, Frullania esed um squarrosula, na Hh, F a Tayl. is, T Pettashtica; Tayl. ptychantha, Mont. aterrima, Tayl. multifida, Dumort. Marchantia tabularis Ne nitida, foli liacea, a ^ Dumortiera hirsuta, Nees, Reboulia hemi vb ROHS "Mit tt. Cnana Nitella hyalina, 4 dk hookeri, Braun. mS fætida, Braun. ontraria, B TAUN. Licnrewzs. Collema seht Acharius. ch. Terion | Mela des, Fries. Spherophorion erroe Ach. eoralloides ten cornucopiodes, Frie Stereocaulon ramulosum, Ach. Stereocaulon tox unm Nyl. Usnea barbata, Frie melaxantha, Ac A. Alectoria ochroleuea, Nyl. Ramalina calicaris, Pac N yallii, Bab. Pelis rufescens, Hoffm. polydactyla, Hoffm. Sticta argyracea, Del. h ri, Bab. » Nyl. glomulifera, De Not. Parmelia — Ach. specio a, Ach. | Psoroma sabpruinosum, Nylander. Frie. odium murorum, DC. Lecanora cerina, Ach, iuda d pularis, Pie Armstrone.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. 851 Lecidea parvifolia, cinna e ii vernalis, 4 decolorans, a. coarctata, Nyl. - tuberculosa, "Fée. decipiens, Ach. mamillari A moniliformis, T: Fux Exige s phalloides, die. erk. eec es, Bull. a eai Bull. auratus, With appendiculatus Bull. Coprinus fim s, Fries. ygrophorns selon Fries. us nove-zealandia, Bk. igniarius, Fries. scruposus, Fries. Polyporus plebeius, Bk. borealis, Fries, a Fries. sanguineus, Fries, Favolus veri ae Bk. Irpex bre pipa "litus, Kunze. m, Bk. Sem Fria. rugos Fries. Corticium polygonium, Fries. ochroleucum, Fries, Clavaria p Vitt. acci ries Pistillaria orale Fries. Aseroe rubra, Lab. ookeri, Bk. Ileodictyon sibarium, Tulas. gracile, Secotium he ee Tul. lilacensis, Bk. Geaster fimbriatus, Fries. Bovista brunnea, Bk. ag Ss eae Bth. cælat m, Fri p Cyathus nove- se a ag Bk. ae ta vidue Crucibulum vulgare, Tulas. paese dilatata, Bk. uccinea graminis, Persoon. pacta, Bk. Uredo antarctica a, Bk. —— segetum, Link, andollei, T'ulas. sodciidhs, Bk. bullata, Bk. $tilbum lateritium , Bk. ladosporium herbarum, Link. jepedonium chrysospermum, Fries. forchella esculenta seotia lubrica, Pers reoglossum hirsutum, Pers. tc Em IUD pi yem Asterina facilites. Bk. Cordiceps sinclairii, Bk. elatinosa, Fries. 852 Transactions.— Dotany. Hypoxylon concentricum, Fries, ig ae , Fries Sphe ES BS S e 'B HE i ennaria ae Mont. Oidium tucker Sargassum longifolium, Agardh, umosum, R ta, Agdh. Landsboroughia ae Harv. Fucodium gladiatus, A ndr Splachnidium rugosum, Grev. Notheia anomala, Bail. et Harv. E Chordaria sordida, Bory. Sphacelaria rae, Suhr. ieularis, Ectocarpus granulosus, Agdh, siliculosus culo be ee delicatula, Bare, Rhodomela — ardii, Ag. glome ont. Bostrychia jake Harv. Polysiphonia implexa, Harv. macra, Harv. Polysiphonia variabilis, Harv. brodiæi, Grev. Das dis Cell shed , Hk.f. Polyzonia Ml. Mont. arveyana, Decais. Champia novæ- zealandiæ, Har. par arvey. Laurencia virgata, Agdh. papi dadima oblonga Harv. Carpomitra cabreræ Be Delisea elegans, — Amphiroa wardii, Harvey. Corallina armata J ealandie, Harv. Delonseris diues ei uerc a, Bor Nitophallara vasiclosum, Harv. elidium corneum, Rhodymenia. osana, H arv, Dasyphlæa insignis, Mont. Plocamium angustum, Hk.f. al g. rrupta, Mont. Callophyllis dien adt Kuetz. obtusa, Kuet Chylocladis secunda, Hkf. Nemastoma à pro ifera, Harv. Dumontia filifor Grev pusilla, Mon hirtum, Hk.f. et Harv. Codium adherens, Agdh, Armstrone.—On the Flora of the Province of Canterbury. 353 Porphyra laciniata, eus | peser gracilis, Griffiths. Ulva bees , Lin colensoi, Harv rispa, Lig t: Colles a darwinii, Kuets. Jutarotaorphe compressa, Grev etos Batrachospermum aaa Roth. Tyndaridea cactus, pears Cladophora lyallii, Har Nostoc verrucosum, Vauc NATURALIZED PLANTS. A list of naturalized plants will be found in the volume of Transactions for 1871, page 284. The following have been introduced since that date :— Ranunculus arvensis, L. Centaurea nigra, L. pratensis, L. cyanus, L. sceleratus, L. Echium violaceum, L. Alyssum calycinum, L. Anchusa italica, L. lens in palin Sm. Convolvulus arvensis, L. dy ps Lobelia erinus. italica, es Verbascum nigrum, L nutans, L. atteria, Sm. pinag L. Lamium amplexicaule, L. Coronopus didyma. maculatum, L. Stellaria graminea, L. - purpureum, L. Polycarpon tetraphyllum, L. Mentha arvensis, Sm. Spergula pilifera, Hort. Teucrium scorodonia, L. Malva campestris, L. Anagallis grandiflora, Hort. is. Prunella cerei d Hort. Euealyptus globulus. Polygonum dryan m angustifolim, Sm. Rumex palustris, Sm marginale, Cunn. Chenopodium ambrosioides. Trifolium maritimum, L. ;uphorbia lathyru arvense, L. Vinea major, L. maeulatum, Hort. Balix ime b. ochroleucum, Sm Betula alba, L orme, Huds. Quercus cerris, L. Melilotus officinalis, L. dunculata, L. Vicia tetrasperma, Koch. Acer pseudo-platanus, L. Lathyrus sylvaticus, L. Cyperus tenellus, L grandiflorus, Hort. Pinus pinaster, Sol. Acacia noe Willd. Koeleria cristata, Pers. Potentilla reptans, L. Alopecurus geniculatus, L. (Enothera ence I Maizilla aia End, grandiflora. inna mexican Helianthus annuus, L. Sporobolus pear ee Br. Helminthis echioides, St. S La; S OV Cichorium intybus Cynodon dactylon, Pers. Onopordon acanthium, L. Panicum germanicum, L. Picris hieracioides, L Poa compressa, L. Anthemis arvensis, C. Festuca loliacea, Huds. Chrysanthemum coronarium. Triticum junceum, L. 354 Transactions.— Botany. Art. L.—Notice of the Occurrence of Liparophyllum gunnii, Lob., in New Zealand. By D. Perre, M.A. [Read before the Otago Institute, 10th February, 1880.] Tux following is the generic character of Liparophyllum, translated from Hooker's Flora of Tasmania :— Calyx deeply 5-fid. Corolla subrotate, limb patent 5-partite, lobes hair- less, dise even thick, margins undulated. Stamens five, filaments short ; hypogynous glands none. Ovary one-celled, placentas two, parietal, ovules numerous. Fruit indehiscent, subbaccate. Seeds very numerous, suborbi- cular, compressed (my specimens immature) ; teste rather hard and thick. A very small marshy herb; rhizome creeping, giving off stout fibres; branches ascending, short, leafy ; leaves linear-elongate, fleshy, somewhat sheathing at the base. Peduncles terminal, solitary, short, one-flowered ; flowers white. The specific description of L. gunnii is given as follows :—A very small herb, 1-2 inches high, resembling a dwarf state of Claytonia australasica. Rhizomes long, cylindric, branching, sending down long, very thick, simple fibres; stems short; leaves linear, one inch long, 4 broad, subacute, fleshy, quite entire. Peduncle shorter than the leaves, terminal, erect, one- flowered. Flowers about 4-inch in diameter. Calyx lobes five, acute. Corolla, short; lobes five, oblong, blunt, with a thick fleshy disc, and undu- lated, broad, membranous margins. Fruit globose; seeds numerous, com- pressed, nearly orbicular, bright yellow. This remarkable plant belongs to the natural order Gentianee, and is extremely unlike the other New Zealand representatives of the same order. It is a member of the tribe Menyanthee, Griesbach. It occurs abundantly in marshy ground at the head of Paterson’s Inlet, Stewart Island, and more sparingly in similar situations at Port Pegasus. In Tasmania it grows in wet sandy soil on the margin of alpine lakes, but in Stewart Island its habitat is little above sea-level. I am indebted to Thomas Kirk, Esq., F.L.S., of Wellington, for the first hint that the plant was Liparophyllum gunnii. It has not, so far as I know, been gathered here in flower, or by any one else than Mr. Thomson and myself. The other characters agree so well with Hooker's description, that I entertain no doubt as to the accuracy of Mr. Kirk's identification. PrrRIE.— On the Occurrence of a Species of Hemiphues in N.Z. 855 Art. LI.—Notice of the Occurrence of a Species of Hemiphues in New Zealand. By D. Perrm, M.A. [Read before the Otago Institute, 10th February, 1880.) Tux following is the generic character of Hemiphues, Hook. fil., translated from Hooker's Flora of Tasmania :— Fruit ovate, oblique, swollen, one-celled, the meriearps cemented together, or one wholly suppressed, crowned by five unequal, deciduous, lobes of the calyx limb, without vittæ, five-ribbed, the ribs inconspicuous and placed opposite the calyx lobes. Petals five linear, sometimes none ? Stamens five. Stylopodia connate, divided into two short erect styles. Alpine herbs, densely esspitose, scapigerous, more or less pilose or woolly ; the leaves all radical, petiolate, spathulate, quite entire or toothed ; scapes short, stout; the umbel simple ; the leaves of the involucre adhering and forming a many-toothed cup ; flowers sessile, inconspicuous. The plant which I refer to this genus was found in Stewart Island, in low boggy situations, in the open land at the head of Paterson's Inlet, and in open moist situations ranging in altitude from sea-level to 1,500 feet, to the west of Port Pegasus, The character of the habitat agrees entirely with that of its Tasmanian congener, Hemiphues bellidioides, Hook. fil. The Tas- manian species flowers in October and November, and the New Zealand one probably flowers in November and December, as the specimens gathered by Mr. Thomson and myself, in the middle of January, had the fruit ripe and ready to fall off. We had the good fortune to meet with one imperfect and withered flower, which exhibited on dissection anomalous characters allied to the Umbelliferz. The habit and general appearance of the plant agree very closely with the generic description, the only points of divergence being that the leaves are not radical but arranged along the stem, while the involucral leaves are not adherent except at the base. In Tasmania, H. bellidioides occurs at an elevation of 4,000 feet, but the Stewart Island species descends to sea-level, as might be expected from the difference in latitude. I propose to designate this highly interesting addition to the flora of New Zealand, Hemiphues nove- zealandiz. The following description is necessarily very incomplete, as the plants were long past flowering when gathered :— HEMIPHUES NOVJE-ZEALANDLE, N. A densely tufted prostrate perennial herb with bad very slender stems. Leaves alternate exstipulate spathulate rather fleshy, glabrous save for a few hairs on the margin at and near the tips, base sheathing silky. Scapes axillary, i-inch high, with four or five oblong involueral leaves enclosing five or fewer flowers. Stylopodia connate conical, at length divided into 956 Transactions. — Botany. two tapering styles. Fruit minute ovate turgid, somewhat compressed, one-celled, ribs indistinct. I think there can be little doubt about including the plant just described in the genus Hemiphues, Certainty about its position cannot of course be attained until flowering specimens are examined. The fruit is minute, and not easy to dissect so as to show its structure plainly. Still I am satisfied that it is one-celled. Whatever surprise may be felt at the discovery of a Hemiphues in Stewart Island, should be greatly lessened by the fact that another Tas- manian alpine plant, viz., Liparophyllum gunnii, grows abundantly side by side with it. By way of posteript I may add that I have another apparently umbellifer- ous plant, of a most anomalous character, gathered in the same localities as Hemiphues nove-zealandig, which may prove another species of that genus. It has a very different general appearance, but the involucral leaves and one- celled fruit closely resemble Hemiphues. The specimens are long past flower, and the fruits, from which the stylopodia have become detached, have fallen off nearly all my specimens. As I cannot indicate the genus, or even the natural order (for it might be a composite plant) with any certainty from the few poor specimens in my possession, I shall not now attempt any partial description of it. Art. LIL-— Description of a new Species of Ehrharta. By D. Perr, M.A. Plate X. (Read before the Otago Institute, 10th February, 1880.] Ehrharta thomsoni, n.s. A snort tufted grass; culm flattened, branched, 2-5 inches long. Leaves distichous, glabrous, flat or concave, about 4 inch long, deeply and closely grooved ; sheaths imbricating, broad, pale, ligule none. Panicle contracted, erect, of 2-4 spikelets, on short slender stalks. Empty glumes, four; lower pair short, broad, obtuse, nearly equal; upper pair thrice the engl of the lower, lanceolate, laterally compressed, nearly equal, silky at the base, 8—5-nerved, the nerves coalescing to form an acute awn-like tip, scabrid on the keel. Flowering glume shorter, three-nerved, bluntly and shortly acuminate. Palea linear rather coriaceous. Scales large, broadly acute, entire. Grain enclosed in the flowering glume. Stamens and styles not seen, — - TRANSNZ INSTITUTE. VOLXITPL X. ty 7 aay tf, LHRHARTA THOMSONII, Petree JL Buchanan, del et Bzh. Girrigs.— On the Growth of Trees on Scoria Soil. 857 Habitat,—Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, on wet open ground, ranging from 100 to 1500 feet in elevation. Named in honour of G. M. Thomson, Esq., of the Dunedin High School, who discovered it along with myself. The only other New Zealand species of Ehrharta is an alpine plant from the Tararua Range, Wellington. This grass possesses, I should say, no economie value. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE X. Fig. 1. Ehrharta thomsoni, Petrie. Nat. size. 2. Spikelet. 3. Upper pair of empty glumes and floret. 4, Floret 5,5’ Nervation of lower heed of empty glumes. 6,6’ r u 7. s Bom glume. 8. - palea. 9,9' Seales. 10. Grain Anr. LIII.— Notes on the Growth of certain Trees on Scoria Soil near Mount Eden, Auckland. By T. B. Gums, a Judge of the Supreme Court of New Zealand. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 30th June, 1879.] Ix autumn, 1860, I planted a variety of trees on a piece of scoria land at the foot of Mount Eden, where I had just built my house, and have now (February, 1879) carefully measured them with the following results. The land was wild scoria land, the surface covered with scoria boulders, the partial disintegration of which had formed soil below, in which were also imbedded scoria boulders. At a greater depth were masses of scoria rock and ash partially decomposed and in many places forming rocky cavities. The surface vegetation was grass and fern. The young trees when planted were from one to two feet high, probably two to three-year-old seedlings. Oaks and other deciduous trees did not thrive, and ultimately died off, except the upright poplar, one badly-grown elm, and the weeping willow. Peach trees grow rapidly and fruit well for a few years (about seven), and then cease to bear. Apple trees grow well and fruit freely for a few years, and then die off from a sort of dry-rot at the roots. Plums, apricots, and cherries do badly in this soil. It will be seen from the annexed table that coniferous trees grow wonderfully in such soil, especially P. insignis and radiata, as also Cupressus macrocarpa, Taxodium sempervirens, 858 and Araucaria excelsa. years’ growth :— Tree. Height. Ft. in, Pinus insignis T. = 58 0 iy i. m 59 0 x var. = Ek 44 6 » ix a 54 0 P. radiata = bs 40 0 "m S : 49 0 P. muricata $5 vs 32 0 n ee oe 35 0 ” oe oe 27 0 n oe oe 22 0 P. canariensis v. ee 32 0 P. pineaster .. 90ft to 35ft. Pinus pen (Stone Pine) os 27 0 y. 390 $9 P: sylvestris (Scotch Fi sE 19 0 21 6 = longifolia oe ke 21 0 P. pumi . oe 4 6 : js es 5 0 Silver Tree (Leucodendron argenteum) 27 0 , , 29 0 Cupressus macrocarpa : +s 29 0 » a = 89 0 C. torulosa bs i 22 0 C. lawsoniana mM = 21 0 C. sempervirens (spreading) ve 31 0 ” ee oe 31 0 Abies excelsa (Spruce) "* 25 0 Cedrus deodara ary >% 21 0 C, atlantica os "e 20 0 ” ee .. 17 0 C. libani es a 13 0 Araucaria excelsa (Norfolk Is. Pine) 35 0 ” 35 0 Sequoia gigantea (Wellingtonia) HO 0 Tazodium sempervirens (Redwood) 28 6 ss 23 0 Podocarpus totara ( (Totara) ae 15 0 -n g- -— ow (cutting — 42 6 Upright I Poplar l0ft. "high when planted) .. Vs xx 40 6 Transactions.— Botany. The following are the results of barely thirteen ge 7 6)\ These are very difficult to dis- tinguish until they abies and being so variable. lopped to 6ft. dont ground. Lopped to 6ft. This tree grown am aster ma; Panis for its greater height and less girth. Lopped to 6ft. 4 6 Lopped to 4ft. i $19 Not ue AI number of them, all Ionii to 6ft. from ground. 11 P te 5ft. 3 Not lopped. 9 Both these are med slightly 6 — from too close proxi- mity to insignis d rad dia d. 6 (Taken 30t ) | Branching from ground. 3 Cut down. 4 O Lopped to 6ft. from ground. 2 2? — Dense foliage to the ground. EM » Ts gb I marin an rag proxi- | iii ws poem ‘off. Lop- Very graceful trees. exposed. oe vgrovinga at first, but making 8 2 6 0 8 7 4 1 5 0) Sl 0 Top fi. high. t. high. pen lopped, tut a little more m Taken 30th June, 1879. Several of them. pz C» myw p COR ce O HR Wh 6 8 4 4 3 My experience shows me that lopping the lower branches promotes growth in height, and, by allowing a free circulation of air from below, checks the ravages of red spider, thrip, and other insect pests. Cotenso.—On new Plants. 859 Arr. LIV.—A Description of a few new Plants Jrom our New Zealand Forests, with dried Specimens of the same. By W. Corzwso, F.L.S. [Read before the Hawkes Bay Philosophical Institute, 18th October, 1879.] Durme the last few years I have again turned my attention in spare time to the elucidating a little more of the still unknown botany of our adopted country; being as strong a believer as ever in the great peculiarities and narrow areas of not a few plants of our local Floras. And, from among several plants which I have detected, which have pleased me, I now bring you the following—all, I believe, being new species and hitherto undescribed, if not totally unknown to science. Some of them, I think, will interest you, partieularly the Clematis, one of the two species of Metrosideros, and the three ferns. But, alas! between the most carefully prepared dried specimens and living plants—in all their glory and beauty—there is “a great gulph” of difference :— i CLEMATIS PARKINSONIANA. A diffuse slender climber ; branches striated. Leaves 8-foliolate, submembranaceous, various in size and outline, mostly (1) ovate acute, mucronate, entire, lj inches long, 7-8 lines broad, (2) sometimes deeply serrated and incised, having 1—4 incisions near apex, (3) sometimes cordate acuminate, 2 inches long, with 6-8 very large and irreg- ular serratures or incisions, and (4) sometimes (rarely) broadly elliptie, almost orbicular, entire, and very obtuse; obscurely trinerved, nerves red 4 both surfaces well covered with adpressed golden-yellow shining hairs; veins numerous, yellow-red and semi-translucent, very finely reticulated— compound anastomosing having free veinlets terminating in areoles, as obtains in some ferns—/e.g., Polypodium membranaceum and our own P. bil- lardieri); common petiole 8 inches long, petiolules 8-10 lines long; young branches, petioles, peduncles, and pedicels densely villous with yellowish- brown spreading woolly hairs. Flowers numerous, diameter 9-10 lines, disposed in long loose axillary panicles 4 inches long ; sepals (male), six, yellow (brass colour), oblong-lanceolate, very obtuse or retuse, 4 lines long, obscurely 3-5 nerved, nerves branching, very woolly on the outside, the silky wool extending far beyond margins and apex, giving a subciliated ap- pearance ; anthers elliptic, obtuse, pinkish ; filaments linear lanceolate, of various lengths, but much shorter than sepals, not very numerous, under thirty, often remaining after the sepals have fallen. Peduncles opposite, Springing from main rhachis, 1-2 inches long, and about 1 inch apart, generally trichotomously bearing three flowers on pedicels 5-8 lines long, the central pedicel always the longest; peduncles and pedicels each having & pair of oblong obtuse connate bracts at their bases, those of the pedicels being the longest, thinnest, and simply veined. 360 Transactions.— Botany. A species having affinity with C. parviflora, A. Cunn., though very distinct. Hab.—On the banks of the River Mangatawhainui (head of the River: Manawatu), *Forty-mile bush," 1878, and again, 1879; where it forms dense bushes with Rubus cissoides, climbing tolerably high, 14-16 feet, and presenting a glorious mass of yellow blossoms. Its flowers, however, are very fugacious, so much so that it is difficult to obtain good specimens, the mere gathering causing them to fall; hermaphrodite flowers, though care- fully sought, were not seen. I have very great pleasure in naming this graceful plant after our earliest botanical draughtsman, SvpxEv Parkinson, who accompanied Sir Joseph Banks and Captain Cook on their first voyage of discovery to New Zealand. Manibus Parkinsonibus sacrum.* METROSIDEROS PENDENS. A climbing plant with reddish rugged bark, having stems round or ob- tusely and irregularly furrowed and angled or compressed, emitting rootlets like ivy, and bearing many pendulous leafy branches. Leaves decussate and distichous, shortly petiolate, ovate acute, 7—9 lines long, 8-5 lines broad, with occasionally a pair nearly orbicular, triplinerved or sub-quintuplinerved, very pilose on both sides, thickly punctate, some- what concave and imbricate, margins revolute, dark-green above and pale or yellowish-green below, sub-membranaceous, old leaves rather dry with obscure veins, young leaves and branchlets very light-coloured with scarcely a tinge of green at first; ultimate branches long, straight, always simple drooping, 12-18 inches long, densely villous, hairs patent. Flowers pendu- lous, white, small, 2 lines long, 8-16 together in a thyssoid panicle, mostly trichotomous, and always terminal; calyx gracefully infundibuliform, nearly 2 lines long, more than twice as long as the ovary, much broader at top and narrower at base than the ovary, pubescent and punctate, teeth 5 (some- times only 8 or 4), triangular acuminate, re-curved, much longer than the petals, punctate, pubescent, and springing without from below the prolonged inner rim of the calyx; petals very minute, deciduous, whitish or light pink, somewhat orbicular, jagged at apex, clawed, the very short claw dark pink. Anthers minute, orbicular, light pink ; filaments white, very slender, hair- like, flexuose, crowded, numerous, always more than 20, 2 lines long, deciduous; style slender, much longer than the stamens, 5 lines long, wavy, persistent; stigma dilated and slightly emarginate ; ovary very small, less than a line in diameter, pilose, globose, obseurely trigonous, turgid, bursting loeulicidally nearly to base. The main peduncle or rhachis stout, terminal, being the continuation of the branch, 4-6 lines long, this sometimes has a * Vide Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. X., p. 109. Cotenso.—On new Plants. 861 short secondary peduncle at its base, springing axillary from a leaf, and trichotomously bearing three flowers nearly sessile or on very short pedicels, bi-bracteate, bracts long linear; pedicels on main rhachis short, under 1 line long, each having a pair of minute, scarious, punctate, and pilose brac- teoles at the base. Hab.: Forests, head of the Manawatu River, climbing lofty trees ; 1874-9. This species is pretty closely allied to M. colensoi, Hook., but differing from that species in its peculiar strictly drooping growth, in its decussate and densely pilose broader and coloured leaves, in its peculiar calyx lobes, and terminal panicles of white flowers. It is a beautiful plant in its native wilds, and will, no doubt, at some future day, become a favourite garden one, on account of its elegant pendulous habit. Its flowers are rather rarely produced, and are generally, including the calyces, gnawed by insects. I had to seek often, and to wait some years ere I could get perfect specimens. I consider it by far the most graceful of all our known New Zealand species of Metrosideros. METROSIDEROS SUBSIMILIS. A bushy diffuse climbing plant, with pale deciduous bark. Leaves opposite, somewhat distichous, petiolate, 7-9 lines long, 4—6 lines broad, broadly ovate and acute, sometimes broadly elliptic and mucronate, sub-coriaceous, minutely punctate beneath, 8 (sub 5) nerved, midrib and lateral nerves prominent, margin entire, slightly revolute and finely ciliated, the lowest pair on a branchlet always the smallest, and often orbicular; young leaves very finely pilose on upper surface and on midrib beneath; petioles and branchlets densely and finely pilose. Flowers horizontal, erect, whitish, small, under 6 lines long, generally 5-7-9 together, decussate, in short racemes or thyrsoid-like panicles, always lateral, and springing directly from old wood,—sometimes, however, a small corymb of three, and more rarely a solitary one appears ; calyx broadly campanulate, longer and broader than ovary, nerved, minutely pilose, with five (sometimes six) deltoid teeth, obtuse, persistent, minutely and regularly crenelled or sub- beaded on inner border of the rim; petals small, fugacious, under one line in diameter, orbicular, scarcely clawed, obscurely 3—5-veined, punctate, erose, or minutely jagged at top, limb faintly pinkish, and some with a slight tinge of red—particularly on the outside,—claw dark coloured; anthers small, orbicular ; filaments slender, simple, pure white, two lines long, flexuose, spreading, not numerous (15-20), deciduous ; style stout, subulate, erect, much longer than stamens, 4-5 lines long during flowering, afterwards 6 lines long or more, persistent; stigma dilated ; ovary small, under one line diameter, globose, wholly adherent with base of calyx-tube, splitting loculi- sally into three valves, the terminal or central ovary sometimes bearing a 41 869 Transactions.— Botany. scarious bracteole near its top; peduncle stout, pubescent, 6-20 lines long, pedicels slender, pubescent, 1-9 lines long, always opposite on rhachis, bracteolate, each with one or two small searious obtuse bracteoles and several very minute acute ones at base, and often with a pair of large leafy broadly ovate punctate bracts pilose and ciliate immediately below the base of the icels. Hab.— Forests at the head of the River Manawatu, where it climbs lofty irees; 1876—79. This species, which has been long known to me in its non-flowering state, will rank near to M. hypericifolia, A. Cunn., which in some respects it resembles; differing, however, in its more upright manner of growth, not being so divaricate; in its leaves being petiolate, broader, pubescent, and ciliate, and not so acute; in the colour of its flowers ; in its stamens being always very diffuse—not erect; in its style being much longer than its stamens ; in its longer and more dilated calyx tube which is also persis- tent; and in its leafy panicles, _ A good characteristic drawing of M. hypericifolia is given in the “ Flora Nova Zelandia ” (such as I have seen that handsome plant in the Northern woods), its flowers are wholly “scarlet” and very striking; but in this species its living flowers mostly appear pure white in its forests, owing to the early falling-off of its very small fugacious petals and its white spreading stamens. | OLEARIA COLORATA. A large shrub 8-12 feet high, of erect sub-pyramidal growth; bark thin, pale ; branchlets striated. Leaves broadly lanceolate, 8-54 inches long, 1-2 inches broad, mucro- nate, grossly and irregularly toothed at ends of lateral veins, teeth long subulate pointed, sub-membranaceous, rather dry, alternate, spreading, colour light-green, thickly covered above when young with long strigose loose woolly hairs,—hairs white, hoary, translucent, irregular in size and shape, branched, linear-lanceolate, broadest in middle, and tapering gradually to both ends,—and leaves densely covered below with closely- pressed white-brown cottony tomentum, which on the mid-rib and principal lateral veins is of a very much darker colour ; lateral veins alternate at right-angles to mid-rib, conniving and coalescing within the margin ; whole leaf closely filled with minute reticulated compound anastomosing veins ; petioles 6-9 lines long, canaliculated, rather slender. Flowers axillary and sub-terminal in diffuse branching heads of loose corymbose panicles ; heads numerous, small, crowded, 5-7 lines diameter, flowers of ray 8-14, white, patent, slightly recurved; involucre sub-campanulate, its scales in about iree rows, lanceolate acute and densely woolly and tipped with black, each Cotenso.—On new Plants. 863 involucre having a small linear bracteole close to its base; pappus nume- rous, white, pointed, not thickened at top, longer than involucre and shorter than the ray flowers ; achenium (immature) glabrous, plain, not costate ; peduncles from rhachis 1-2 inches long, always bearing an oblong obtuse bract close to their bases; pedicels 2-4 lines long, slender, generally with a linear bracteole at base or about the middle of pedicel, and mostly ending dichoto- mously with two heads of flowers; rhachis, peduncles, pedicels, involucres, and petioles, thickly covered with red-brown woolly tomentum. Hab.—Dry forests, “ Forty-mile Bush," head of the River Manawatu; 1876-1878. This plant is, no doubt, closely allied to O. cunninghamii, Hook., but differing in its peculiar strigose hoary leaves, and their several curious colours, and sharp apiculated teeth, in their veinlets branching from the mid- rib at right angles, and in its pointed pappus. I have more than once thought, that Sir J. D. Hooker may have included more than one species of Olearia under O. cunninghamii in his “ Handbook of New Zealand Flora.” The type of that species (Brachyglottis rani), discovered and described by Cunningham, is a northern plant (Cunningham originally found it north of the Bay of Islands), and I have never met with it in these parts. But be that as it may, this species is neither Cunningham's plant nor the O. cunning- hamii of Hooker. It is common in the “ Forty-mile Bush” forest, and when in full flower in summer is a graceful and conspicuous object, always de- lighting the eye of the traveller that way with its striking masses of white blossoms. Curiously enough this plant does not flower every year. It flowered most abundantly in 1878, but in 1879 not a single shrub could I detect bearing any flowers! It has been named colorata from the four colours of its leaves and petioles; the upper side of the leaf, when denuded of its hoary hairs, is peculiar light green, below the blade is whitish with a slight tinge of pis or light brown, while the mid-rib and larger veins are light reddish-brown, and the petioles and branchlets are a still darker shade of rich red-brown. All this is very constant and apparent, at first sight, in its living state. Its leaves are also frequently further discoloured through being punctured and gnawed by insects. DicksonIA SPARMANNIANA. Plant terrestrial, cespitose, sub-erect, many-fronded, rhizome or root- stalk rising only a few inches above ground, and in some few instances apparently shortly coalescent. Stipe very short, 6-9 inches, densely clothed throughout with long hairs; hairs 2 inches long, shining, chesnut-brown, articulated and moniliform their whole length; rhachises densely woolly and hairy with light brown, patent, glandular hairs; stipe and main-rhachis 864 Transactions,— Botany. green, sub-succulent, with a continuous, narrow, white-ridged, glabrous line, extending from pinna to pinna on both sides throughout their whole length. Frond obovate or cuneate, profoundly tapering downwards, or somewhat of a rhomboidal figure having two of its sides excessively produced, tripinnate, acuminate at tip, about 40 jugate, 6 feet long, broadest at 20 inches from apex, and there 18-20 inches in diameter, greatly attenuated downwards ; pinne alternate, free, not crowded, longest pinna isosceles-triangular very . acuminate, 94 inches long and 3 inches broad at base (broadest part), but rapidly decreasing in breadth, being, at 2 inches from base, only 2 inches broad; pinne at base of frond very small, 2-23 inches long, and distant, only 6-7 in the lowest foot on both sides, and fully 15-18 inches from lower end of rhachis before any approach to pairs; pinnules petiolate, straight or inclined forwards, triangular, 12-14 lines long, 4-5 lines broad, broadest at base, very acute, alternate; segments not crowded, oblong-ovate, sub- falcate, alternate, sessile, save lowermost pair on pinnule, decurrent, sharply toothed, the largest barren ones having 10-11 acute, almost spiny, teeth, fertile ones with fewer teeth and sub-revolute; texture membranaceous, both sides more or less hairy, particularly on mid-rib of pinnules; hairs on upper surface loose, hoary; veins pinnate, veinlets forked at apex, some simple, free ; sori, generally four on largest segment, small, not crowded; involucres very globose and inflated, margins entire ; valves large, especially the outer one which is cucullate, and partly composed of a different texture from that of the frond—not unlike that of a Cibotium. Hab.—In hilly shaded forests, western slopes of Ruahine Range, head of river Manawatu, 1877-80. This fern in some respects approaches to our D. fibrosa, but is very distinct. There is a common family resemblance among most of the large Dicksonie, rendering it difficult to discriminate species,—especially from merely dried specimens and portions of fronds. Here, however, the peculiar hairs afford a good character, also the sori and the striking outline of the frond (there are also others more or less minute). The very local and distinet D. arborescens, of St. Helena, the type of the genus, has also similar moniliform hairs. The time is rapidly approaching when ferns will be more truly and naturally classified (as to species) by their peculiar and never- varying natural microscopical characters ;—much as now obtains among the Hepatice and Musci, the Umbellifere and Composite. This species is a very handsome growing plant, with its bold fine-spreading crown ; in its manner of growth resembling its neighbours Aspidium aculeatum* and Lomaria discolor—but is as a giant among them! I have known it for “In giving the name from the * Handbook, New Zealand Flora," by which this dsome fern is therein described, Ido not subscribe to its being identical with the British species of that name. CoLEenso.—On new Plants. 865 several years, but only last year, for the first time, found it bearing fruit in great profusion. I have honoured myself by naming it after a disciple and fellow- countryman of Linneus—Dr. Sparrman—who was one of the earliest botanists in New Zealand, accompanying Captain Cook and the two Forsters hither on his second voyage of discovery. Of Sparrman, his fellow- voyager Dr. Forster says in his preface to his classical Genera Plantarum :— * Sparmannus plantas describebat, Filius easdem delineabat.—Verum dum Sparmannus plantas accuratius examinaret, filius et ego ssepe in consilium vocati in commune consulebamus, etc.,”—and yet nothing in New Zealand has ever been named after him !4 HyMENOPHYLLUM PUSILLUM, Plant both epiphytical and terrestrial; rhizome red, wiry, creeping, hairy; hairs red. Frond 4-8 lines long, oblong-ovate, obtuse, pinnate, 4-5 jugate, bearing long, red, broad, curved scales on its veins on both surfaces; pinne petiolate free, mostly opposite, lobed or sub-pinnatifid on the upper side only, lower- most pair always opposite and generally 8-lobed; rhachis not winged, save a very little at top, lobes very small and confluent at apex ; stipe 3—7 lines long, capillary, flexuose; stipe and rhachis bearing scattered red chaffy scales; segments or lobes, obovate-elliptic, not linear, very obtuse or trun- cate, semi-transparent, largely serrate or laciniate, the teeth or laciniations very long for size of plant and wholly composed of the fine texture of the frond and often revolute never spinulose, generally five teeth at the apex of a lobe; involucres terminal and supra-axillary on the uppermost pinus, obovate, divided about halfway down, not compressed, and bearing red hairy scales ; lips toothed ; receptacle included; sori red. Hania trunks of living trees, and on the earth at their bases, in dense shady forests throughout the North Island, but sparingly. First detected (barren) on Te Ranga mountain, head-waters of Waikare, Bay of Islands, 1836; again (but barren) at the head of the Wairarapa Valley, ,1892 ; and again, and in fruit, in the forests, west slopes of Ruahine moun- tain range, near the head-waters of the River Manawatu, 1878-9-80 ; gener- ally found on Olea sp. This little plant is nearly allied to Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, H. revo- lutum (mihi)? H. minimum, and other of the smaller Hymenophylle ; but on close comparison with them (living specimens) it will be found to be abundantly distinct. To me it appears as a necessary needful species re- . + Vide “ Transactions N.Z. Inst., Vol. I., ** Essay on the Botany of the North Island, N.Z.," pp. 55, 56, for more, } Tasmanian Journal Natural Science, Vol. L, p. 186, 866 Transactions.— Botany. quired to connect those species above referred to in a natural sequence. It is one of those ferns which, though distinct, it is difficult to describe specifi- cally in words, as Sir W. J. Hooker, long ago, often remarked in his valuable works on ferns. Having, however, lately obtained specimens of Hymeno- phyllum tunbridyense (vera) from England, I am positive of its specific distinction; the typical British plant being wholly glabrous, having its rhachis strongly winged throughout (extending downward in some instances to the upper part of its stipe), its lobes always narrow “‘ linear," and serrate not slashed, teeth spinulose and hard not thin, with only 2-8 teeth at the apex of a lobe, and its fructification invariably supra-axillary and never terminal. But with botanists who make but one species of those two widely differing ferns—H. tunbridgense and H. wilsoni—of course this little fellow would be only deemed a variety of H. tunbridgense. TRICHOMANES VENUSTULA. Plant creeping, epiphytical, pendulous on trunks of living trees ; rhizome capillary, creeping, woolly. Fronds pendulous, pinnate, 4-6 (sometimes 7) jugate, dark-green, gla- brous, semi-transparent, oblong, somewhat deltoid, obtuse, 1-2 inches long, 6-12 lines wide ; pinne petiolate, close not crowded, tolerably regular, lower- most pair mostly opposite and generally the largest, flabellate and rhom- boid-acuminate, sub-pinnatifid or deeply cut on both sides, trinerved, each nerve a little waved and giving out pinnate veins, veinlets simple or forked, margin slightly sinuous; segments generally 8-5 on a pinna, obtuse or retuse, cuneate at base, middle one linear and much produced ; involucres scattered on both edges of pinnæ, 2-5 on a pinna, upper half free or with one side attached to frond, tubular or slightly funnel-shaped, mouth much dilated, plane, equal all round: receptacle setaceous and exserted, 2-6 lines long, curved ; rhachis winged slightly at apex; stipe 9-12 lines long, capillary, flexuose; both stipe and rhachis green, nearly same colour as frond: stipe always black at base. Hab.—On trunks of living trees, dense shady damp forests, west slopes of Ruahine mountain range, head of the River Manawatu; 1878-9. E This little novelty is nearly allied to T'richomanes venosum, Brown; differ- ing, however, in several respects, especially in its sub-flabellate trinerved pinne, in its rhachis not being winged, and in its involucres, which are also numerous and scattered on both edges of its pinnz. While growing pretty plentifully in that locality, though only hitherto detected on a few trees, it is not very often found in fruit; at the same time some insect seems to be very fond of its fronds, which are generally more or less gnawed. Showing, in this respect also, a great difference to its ally T. venosum, which, on the neighbouring tree-ferns, luxuriates untouched in Knieur.—On the Lichenographia of New Zealand. 867 allits glossy beauty. It was only in this last year (1879), after very diligent research, that I succeeded in obtaining good fruiting specimens of this plant. P.S.— Specimens of all the Plants described in this Paper have been forwarded with it to the Manager of the New Zealand Institute, for the Her- barium of the Colonial Museum, Wellington. Art. LV.— Contribution to the Lichenographia of New Zealand. By CnmanrEs Knicut, F.L.S. Plates XII. and XIII. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 21st February, 1880.] 1. Sticta amphisticta, Kn. Thallus pallido-ochro-fuscescens aut passim hepatico-fuscescens ambi- tum versus sspe fuscus mediocris levis parum rigescens, supra punctis albis sparsis pseudo-cyphelloideis minutis conspersus, laciniato-divisus, laciniis subcaniculatis varie lobatis v. grosse sinuato-crenatis, apice dicho- tomis v. obtusis; subtus ochro-fuseus aut pallido-fuscescens medio fusco- tomentosus ; cyphelle urceolatz pallide, margine ssepe prominulo; cepha- lodia sonia minuta parca. Apothecia sparsa badio-rufa, margine tenui crenulato pallido aliquando integro. Spore incolores v. dilute luteole oblongo-fusiformes v. oblongæ, 1-3-septate, longit. -026, crassit. -007 mm. Ad cortices. 2. Sticta episticta, Nyl Thallus ochroleucus v. pallido-ochraceo-fuscescens mediocris vix nitidius- culus, supra punctis albis pseudo-cyphelloideis minutis sparsis conspersus, - laciniatus, laciniis varie lobato-divisis subcaniculatis ambitu minute cre- natis passim ibi laciniatulo-dissectis v. fere isidiosis; subtus ochraceus .puberulus subnudus medio fusco-tomentosus, cyphellis parvis urceolatis perpaucis v. nullis pallidis, cephalodiis concoloris minutis parcis. Apo- thecia rara v. rarissima badio-rufa margine thallino crenulato v. leviter denticulato-inequali cincta. Spore incolores v. dilute luteole oblongo- fusiformes v. oblonge, 1—8-septate, longit. *08, crassit. 007 mm. Ad cortices 8. Pannaria atrofumosa, Kn. Thallus tds cios v. atro-fumosus squamulosus diffracto-areo- latus, squamulis minutis concavis crenato-orbiculatis ambitu minutissime granulosis v. p hypothallo atro late marginatus. SETE innata 868 Transactions.—Dotany. v. immixta lecanorina intus incoloria, disco plano luteo-rubro v. luteo-fusco in centro plerumque fisso v. depresso v. decolore, margine nonnihil gyrato elevato minutissime granuloso, paraphysibus capillaribus discretis. Spore in ascis cylindricis uniseriales ellipsoideæ incolores, longit. ‘015, crassit. *008 mm. Ad eortices. Pannaria immiata v. gyrantha, Nyl. in litt. 4. Pannaria apiculata, Kn. Thallus sordide fuscus passim fumoso-fuscus v. plumbeo-cinereus minute squamuloso-mierophyllinus (squamulis nonnihil laciniato-effiguratis) v. dif- fracto-areolatus v. detritus tum demum hypothallo nigro passim v. omnino nudo. Apothecia biatorina brunnea v. rufo-nigra plana interdum convexa . intus incoloria v. omnino dilute luteola, margine pallidiore tenui integro. Spore in ascis late cylindricis ellipsoidez sæpissime utrinque apiculate dilute fuscescentes, longit, -018, crassit. 009 mm Ad cortices. 5. Pannaria triptophylla, Ach. Apothecia biatorina margine erecto. Spore ellipsoidem. Hypothecium fusco-nigricante. Hypothallus ceruleo-nigricans. Ad cortices. 6. Pannaria subsimilis, Kn. Thallus glauco-cervinus squamulosus v. microphyllo-squamulosus, squa- mulis membranaeeis contiguis adpressis rotundato-incisis singulis e centro radiantibus, granulis gonimis cerulescentibus, hypothallo cærulescenti- nigro limitatus. Apotheciarubra v. croceo-rubra biatorina plana marginata, margine pallido integro tenui discum sequante, excipulo proprio luteo-fusco, hypothecio concolore, paraphysibus gracilibus non bene discretis (apice non dilatis et vix incoloratis). Spore in ascis cylindraceis ellipsoidez incolores v. dilute luteolre, longit. 015, crass. -006 mm. Ad cortices. The colour of thin sections of the apothecia seen by reflected light is a delicate rufous yellow. Syn.: Pannaria nigro-cincta, Nyl., Handbook New Zealand Flora, fol. 575. There is some confusion in respect of Montagne’s lichen. Both Babing- ton and Nylander consider the New Zealand lichen to be the Psoroma nigro- cincta of Montagne. But in fact Montagne's plant, of which there is an authentic specimen in the Kew Museum (probably contributed by Montagne himselt), is a true Psoroma; the thallus with large green gonidia, apothecia biatorine, excipulum of a pale brown or “Indian pink,” and agreeing closely with the description in ** Sylloge Plant. Crypt." On the other hand No. 51 of Leighton's Ceylon Lichens, ** Pannaria nigro-cincta, Mont,” is a true Pan- TRANS.N.ZINSTITUTE, VOL. XILPLXIT. bas LITE Er rd OES nee rm CH | DE E | LIT4:.J FE Patt IT 7 eet W FA En n a Hi LT an tay HI T H is | LH in agi " [| H. H] LH jig H ii Jj ———— iia ewe Fe, anm ve £s NIE Kwrenr.—0On the Lichenographia of New Zealand. 369 naria; apothecia lecanorine with “granule gonimæ” in place of gonidia, the granules large, ceruleo-glaucescent, margin prominent, crenulate. Again, No. 142, Spruce’s Lich. Amaz. et And., is a true Psoroma: apothecia bia- torine symphyearpous, margin obscure, spores smaller, and the thallus with well fasst layer of gonidial masses. 7. Pannaria amphibola, Kn. Thallus e glauco-rufescente helvolus microphyllinus, phyllis subimbri- catis planiuseulis lobulatis, lobis crenatis ambitu albo-furfuraceis, granulis gonimis glauco-cerulescentibus, hypothallo rubro-fusco v. nullo. Apothecia luteo-rufa biatorina plana marginata intus luteo-fusca, margine concolore integro, paraphysibus crassis adglutinatis. Spore ellipsoide»e interdum utrinque attenuate simplices incolores, longit. -012, crass. -006 mm. Ad cortices. P. amphibola, Nyl. in litt. 8. Pannaria biatorina, Kn. Thallus albo-virescens squamulosus, squamulis adpressis minutis crenu- latis, granulis gonimis glauco-virescentibus, hypothallo nigro. Apothecia biatorina sparsa aurantiaca (diam. 0-4 mm. v. minora) superficialia intus pallida marginem pallidiorem demum equantia, margine primo elevato integro, paraphysibus capillaribus adglutinatis. Spore in ascis clavatis ellipsoidee subhyaline demum dilute luteole granulose, longit. ‘02 mm., crassit. '01 mm. Supra Jungermannias. 9. Pannaria subimmixta, Kn. Thallus glauco-albescens squamulosus, squamulis parvis rotundis cre- natis confertis v. imbrieatis, hypothallo nigro, granulis gonimis glauco- viridis v. glauco-brunneis 1-4 in nodulo singulo (microscopii area granula gonima obsita). Apothecia lecanorina fusca v. brunnea plana, margine cre- nato. Spore uniseriales simplices ellipsoidex, longit. -014, crass. 008 mm. Supra terram et lapides. 10. Physcia plinthiza, Nyl. Thallus albo-glaucescens corrugatus rotundato-lobato-incisus in centro granulatus, laciniis arcte adpressis ambitu obscure crenatis. Apothecia madefacta diam. 1-7 mm. intus incolorata v. dilute glaucescentia, disco fusco v. atro-fuseo plano, margine subinflexo tumido crenulato, excipulo thallino celluloso gonimico, gonimia magna numerosa, excipulo proprio (hypothecio) ex utroque latere evanescente, paraphysibus discretis apicibus elliptico-dilatis. Spore in ascis cylindraceo-saccatis ellipsoide fuses 4-6-loculares, loculis tubulo junctis et mediis sepe didymis (ita medio series 2 adsunt transverse biloculares), longit. +08, crassit. -012 mm. Ad cortices. 42 870 'ransactions.— Botany. 11. Lecanora babingtonii, Mass. Thallus tenuis albo-cinereus granulosus v. minutissime squamulosus, squamulis arcte adpressis. Apothecia rosea v. luteo-coccinea (diam. 1:5 v. minora) marginata, margine granulato tandem flexuoso, excipulo thallino albido v. dilutissime colorato gonidia continente, excipulo proprio fibrato supra evanescente, paraphysibus non bene discretis apice minute granulosis non dilatis. Spore in ascis saccatis subarcuate v. leviter curvate aciculari- fusiformes 5-septate, longit. 035, crassit. ‘004 mm. Ad cortices. Probably Babington’s L. punicea, Ach. (Flora N.Z., p. 292). Comparing our lichen with Leighton's L. punicea (Ceylon Lichens, No. 62), it is seen that the thallus of the latter is fusco-cinereous, while the spores are ‘(07 mm. in length, and the septze from 7-15 in number (v. fig. No. 11, b.), and these measurements agree with Nylander's figure, v. Nylander's Lichenes Novo- Granatenses, p. 82, fig. 7, tab. 1, reproduced here to the same scale as all the other figures are drawn, v. fig. No. 11, c. 19. Bacidia subscripta, Kn. Thallus sordide cineraseens v. sordide cinereo-albidus tenuis continuus v. minute areolatus v. fissus indeterminatus. Apothecia superficialia atro- fuscescentia nuda plana v. concava marginata (diam. 1 mm.)—raro in juniore pallide fusca—margine concolore tenui, excipulo dilute fuscescente & lateribus v. a basi et lateribus per lineam tenuem fuscam contento, strato subhymeniale e pseudo-gonidiis liberis sphericis incoloratis—aliis minutis aliis sat grandibus—formato, paraphysibus brevibus suberassis adglutinatis grumosis. Spore in ascis clavatis fusiformi-aciculares subspiraliter con- torte v. in arcum curvate 3-7 septate v. simplices (septis invisis ?), longit. 04, crassit. -0035 mm. Ad cortices arborum. 18. Bacidia glomerulosa, Kn. — Thallus sordide ochraceo-cinerascens byssaceo-pulverulens ubique dif- fractus v. dehiscens granulas gonimas virides in nodulis magnis receptas continens. Apothecia adnata v. innata (diam. 0:5 mm.) atro-fusca, margine evanido, exeipulo dilute colorato, hymenio fusco, paraphysibus gracilibus non bene discretis apicibus fuscis. Spore recte aciculares 8—7 septate, longit. ‘035, crassit. 0025 mm. Ad cortices arborum. 14. Bacidia eucoccodes, Kn. Thallus einereo-viridescens granulosus v. mierophyllino-granulosus effu- sus granulas gonimas virides in nodulis receptas continens. Apothecia innata v. adnata fusco-atra plana v. convexa marginata (diam. 1:9 mm.), margine concolore obseuro demum tenui, excipulo dilutissime colorato ab a Kxranr.—On the Lichenographia of New Zealand. 371 linea atro-fusea cincto, paraphysibus gracilibus discretis. Spore in ascis clavatis aciculares gracillimæ infra attenuate recte sat 14-septate, longit, ‘06, erassit. ‘0015 mm. Ad cortices arborum. 15. Bacidia spirosporay Kn. Thallus cinerascens tenuis levis continuus v. subtiliter fissus, gonidia vera offerens, per lineam atram determinatus. Apothecia nigro-fusca (diam. 1mm.) plana demum convexa marginata, margine concolore, paraphysibus gracilibus non bene discretis, apicibus fuscis subincrassatis. Spore in ascis clavatis aciculares infra attenuate circiter 18-septate, septis distinctis, maxime spiraliter curvate, longit. ‘06, crassit. 008 mm Ad cortices arborum. 16. Bacidia melastegia, Kn. Thallus sordide albo-ochraceus tenuis continuus. Apothecia minuta (diam. 0:4 mm.) atro-fusca plana adnata, margine pallidiore—intus fuliginoso,— excipulo dilute colorato, strato subhymeniale fuscescente, paraphysibus gra- cilibus apice anthracinis. Spore in ascis clavatis aciculares utrinque attenuato-acute 13-20 septate spiraliter curvate, longit. -075, crassit. -002. Lecidea melastegia, Nyl. in litt. Ad cortices arborum. 17. Bacidia anceps, Kn. Thallus cinerascens tenuis minute albo-granulosus continuus. Apothecia rufo-fusea v. nigro-fusea (diam. 1 mm.) marginata, disco plano, margine crasso fusco (intus fusco), excipulo crasso dilute luteo cellulari (cella quadrata) in granulis comminuatur, strato subhymeniale dilute succineo, paraphysibus discretis. Spore aciculares utrinque acute infra attenuate circiter 16-septate, septis distinctis, longit. *07, crassit. 002 mm. Ad cortices arborum. 18. Bacidia cerasentera, Kn. Thallus albo-cinereus areolatus tenuissimus v. macula alba indicatus. Apothecia atra minuta (diam. 0:4 mm.) innata v. adnata, in juvenis sepe e thallo albo marginata, intus fusea v. purpureo-fusca, excipulo atro, margine concolore obscuro, paraphysibus crassis brevis excipulo atro enatis apice bulbosis purpureo-atris non bene diseretis. Spore in ascis clavatis fusiformi- aciculares in arcum curvats 7-9 septate v. minus clare septate, longit. -045, crassit. ‘004 mm. Lecidea cerasentera, Nyl. in litt. Ad cortices arborum. 19. Bacidia melasema, Kn. Thallus ochraceo-cinerascens tenuissimus squamulosus, squamulis minutis arcte adpressis, continuus linea atra limitatus. Apothecia ad- 372 Transactions.— Botany. nata atra convexa (diam. 0-8 mm.) intus colorata immarginata, excipulo glauco-nigricante v. nigro, strato subhymeniale (in sectione subtilissima) viridulo e pseudo-gonidiis liberis sphericis oleaceis dilute viridis (aliis minu- tissimis aliis sat grandibus) formato, paraphysibus non diseretis. Spore fusiformi-aciculares curvate circiter 7-septate, longit. ‘032, crassit. :004 Lecidea melasema, Nyl. in litt. Ad cortices arborum. 20. Bacidia mesospora, Kn. Thallus tenuis sordide fuscus effusus leproso-pulverulens. Apothecia luteo-rubella plana demum convexa (diam. 0-4), margine concolore demum obscuro, excipulo incolore, paraphysibus gracillimis adglutinatis. Spore in ascis clavatis bacillares rectæ non supra 8-septatæ, interdum septis obseuris, longit. :024, crassit. 008 mm Ad cortices arborum. 21. Bacidia stenospora, Kn. Thallus sordide ochraceus tenuis subtilissime areolo-granulosus (farino- sus) indeterminatus. Apothecia pallido-livida ceracea plana adnata appressa (diam. 0°7 mm.) immarginata, excipulo luteo-fusco textura radiatim dispo- sita, paraphysibus adglutinatis obscuris apice incoloratis non dilatis. Spore in ascis (longit. *085, crassit. ‘005 mm.) bacilliformibus aciculares recte gracillime circiter 80-septate, septis parum obscuris, longit. -075, crassit. :0015 mm. Ad eortices arborum. 22. Bacidia pedicellata, Kn. Thallus cinerascens tenuissimus continuus. Apothecia superficialia (diam. 1:1 mm.) rufa v. fusco-rufa convexa nonnihil subglobosa unde quasi pedicellata intus dilute fusco-lutea, margine obtuso eoncolore demum obscuro, strato subhymeniale fusco, paraphysibus concretis gracilibus apice non dilatis. Spore aciculares rectæ circiter 28-septate, septis distinctis, longit. 085, crassit. '008 mm. Supra Jungermannias. 23. Bacidia rimosa, Kn. Thallus cinerascens tenuissimus effusus diffractus rimosus. Apothecia e strato thallode gonidiale enata rufa tandem rufo-fusca (diam. 0:6 mm.) plana marginata, margine concolore v. dilute concolore demum obscuro, excipulo dilute luteo, strato subhymeniale fusco, paraphysibus gracilis non bene discretis apice grumosis. Spore aciculares infra attenuate, supra tusæ, rectæ circiter 20-septate, longit. 054, crassit, -0025 mm. Ad cortices arborum, Kyieut.—On the Lichenographia of New Zealand. 873 24, Bacidia carneo-rufa, Kn Thallus olivaceo-fuseus tenuis leprosus effusus. Apothecia carneo-rufa (diam. 1 mm.) plana, margine concolore, excipulo pallido, strato sub- hymeniale fusco, paraphysibus adglutinatis apice non dilatis. Spore aciculares supra obtuse infra attenuate recte circiter 15- septate, longit. *065, crassit. ‘002 mm. Ad cortices arborum. 25. Bacidia rosello-carnea, Kn. Thallus ochro-cinerascens v. ochro-fuscescens leproso-granulatus tenuis continuus v. minute areolatus interdum subrugulosus indeterminatus. Apothecia (diam. 0*5 mm.) adnata plana v. convexa sordide rosello-carnea tandem fuscescentia ssepius in parte decolorata intus luteo-fusea, margine concolore v. pallidiore demum evanescente, paraphysibus adglutinatis obscuris grumosis apice non dilatis. Spore vermiformi-aciculares sub- spiraliter curvate circiter 10-septatz, longit. -05, crassit. -002 mm. Ad cortices arborum. Lecidea rosello-carnea, Nyl. in litt. 26. Bacidia pseudo-pyrra, Kn. Thallus olivaceo-fuscus tenuissimus (pellucidus? unde matrice perlu- cente thallus coloratus). Apothecia luteo-alba minuta (diam. 0-8 mm.) convexa, margine concolore obscuro, excipulo incolore v. strato subhymeniale dilute fusco, paraphysibus adglutinatis obscuris non grumosis. Spore in .aseis clavatis bacillares subeurvatz circiter 8-septate, longit. *04, crassit. 25 mm. | Ad cortices arborum. Closely allied to B. albescens, Hepp. 27. Bacidia leuco-carpa, Kn. Thallus albido-cinerascens leproso-granulosus tenuissimus indetermin- atus. Apothecia albida v. carneo-alba adnata plana v. convexa immarginata (diam. 0-8 mm.), strato subhymeniale luteo-fusco, paraphysibus adglutinatis obscuris grumosis. Spore vermiformi-aciculares subspiraliter curvate sat 10-septate, longit. -06, crassit. -002 mm. Ad cortices arborum. 28. Bacidia spodoeleina, Kn. Thallus cinereo-olivaceus tenuis sublevis continuus indeterminatus. Apothecia fusca v. fusco-nigra (diam. 0:6 mm .) eonvexa, margine concolore, disco in juvenis aliquando pruinosa, excipulo albo, strato subhymeniale incolorato, paraphysibus gracilibus non bene discretis apice non dilatis. Spore bacillares circiter 18-septate recte v. leviter curvate, longit. -06, crassit. -008 mm. Ad cortices arborum. 974 Transactions, — Botany. 29. Bacidia chryso-carpa, Kn. Thallus albus v. sordide albescens tenuissimus subleprosus v. leproso- granulatus v. pulverulens indeterminatus. Apothecia flavescentia convexa (diam. 0-8 mm.), margine concolore indistincto demum excluso, excipulo (viso per reflectam lucem) albo, strato subhymeniale dilute luteo-fusco, paraphysibus adglutinatis gracilibus non grumosis apice non dilatis. Spore aciculares gracillime, septis invisis, longit. *06, crassit. -002 mm. Ad cortices arborum. 90. Bacidia nanospora, Kn. Thallus cinereus tenuis subleprosus, granulas gonimas virides in nodulis magnis receptas continens. Apothecia e thallo oriunda (in juniore biatorina . urceolata, diseo sordide fusco, margine pallidiore ceraceo prominente erecto, strato subhymeniale dilute luteo-fusco) tandem convexa (diam. -6 mm.) fusca, margine obscurato, excipulo fusco, paraphysibus adglutinatis brevibus. Spore in ascis clavatis vermiformi-aciculares, septis invisis, longit. ‘02 mm., crassit. ‘0013 mm. Ad cortices arborum. excipulo fusco, strato subhymeniale atro-fuseo, paraphysibus non bene discretis gracilibus apice non dilatis. Spore aciculares infra attenuate gracillime recte sat 16-septate, longit. -06 ad "09, crassit. 0015 ad ‘002 mm. Ad cortices arborum. 82. Bacidia rhodocarpa, Kn. Thallus sordide ochraceus v. cin pul ti , granulas gonimas in nodulis magnis receptas continens. Apothecia luteo-rufescentia v. rubra v. demum fuscescentia plana marginata (diam. 0-8 mm.) margine concolore demum obscuro, excipulo luteo-fusco, strato subhymeniale atro- luteo-fusco, paraphysibus capillaribus discretis, apicibus non dilatis, Sporæ aciculares rectæ circiter 20-septatæ, longit. *06, erassit. -002 mm. Ad cortices arborum. 38. Bacidia albido-prasina, Kn. Thallus glauco-albidus v. albo-smaragdinus tenuis levis continuus linea nigra limitatus. Apothecia carneo-alba adnata plana v. convexa (diam. 0'4 mm.) margine pallidiore demum obscuro, excipulo luteo-fusco, para- physibus adglutinatis apice non dilatis. Spore aciculares simplices (septis invisis) gracillime, longit. *05, crassit. -002 mm. Ad cortices arborum. Knicut.—On the Lichenographia of New Zealand. 375 94. Lecidea cerinocarpa, Kn. Thallus cinereo-viridis tenuis pulverescenti-granulatus, gonidiis veris flavo-virescentibus, interdum granulis gonimis in nodulis magnis receptis. Apothecia ceraceo-carneo-lutea convexa interdum discolorata marginata (diam. 0-8 mm.) intus incolorata, margine exacte concolore ex quo obseurato, paraphysibus capillaribus diseretis. Spore in ascis cylindraceis uniseriales ellipsoidex simplices incolores, ici ‘013 mm., crassit. -006 mm. Ad cortices. 35. Lecidea rhypoderma, Kn. Thallus sordide fusco-virescens congesto-isidioso-farinosus friabilis dif- fractus, gonidiis veris flavo-virescentibus in massis magnis glomeratis. Apothecia fusca v. fusco-rufescentia adnata (diam. 1 mm. v. minora) convexa immarginata intus luteo-fusca, strato subhymeniale fusco, para- physibus brevibus (circiter 04 mm.) adglutinatis apice non dilatis. Spore cylindraceo-oblonge incolores, longit. -008 ad +01, crassit. -002 mm. Ad cortices, The spores sometimes show a faint trace of a septum. 86. Lecidea parvifolia v. corallina, Tuck. Thallus cinereo-glaucus squamuloso-microphyllinus continuus, squamu- lis corallinis v. lobato-palmatis, gonidiis veris flavo-virescentibus, hypothallo pallide fibrilloso passim conspicuo. Apothecia biatorina luteo-rubella plana immersa v. superficialia marginata intus pallida, margine concolore, disco plano interdum in centro depresso, paraphysibus hand bene discretis. Spore in ascis parvis obovodeis ellipsoideze simplices incolores, longit. -01, crassit. ‘003 mm Ad gaboi. Agrees with Leighton’s Ceylon Lichens No. 109, except that the spores are somewhat smaller (-015 x -004 mm.); but differs widely from No. 110, in which the thallus is thin, powdery, and hypothecium black. 97. Lecidea microdactyla, Kn. Thallus pallide cinereo-viridescens flocculoso-corallinus v. flocculoso- granulosus continuus, hypothallo pallido byssoideo, gonidiis veris flavo- virescentibus. Apothecia biatorina luteo-rubella intus incolorata strato gonimieo enata, margine evanescente, paraphysibus non discretis. Spore cylindraceo-ellipsoidew simplices, longit -015, crassit. 0025 Ad cortices. 88. Lecidea conisalea, Kn. Thallus albo-viridescens pulverulentus tenuis continuus, gonidiis veris flavo-virescentibus. Apothecia biatorina luteo-rubella plana v. convexa marginata intus incolorato (diam. 1 mm. v. minora), margine tenui vulgo 876 Transactions.— Botany. pallidiore demum tenuissimo v. evanescente, paraphysibus capillaribus dis- tinctis. Spore ovoides simplices incolores, longit. *015, crassit. -006 mm. Ad cortices. 89. Lecidea semipallida, Kn. Thallus einerascens tenuissimus v. evanescens v. nihil nisi matrix pulvere conspersa. Apothecia rufa minuta biatorina (diam 0:15 mm.) intus rufo-pallida immarginata, paraphysibus grumosis. Spore minute incolores simplices oblongo-ellipsoides, longit. ‘01 mm., crassit. 008 mm. Ad cortices. Lecidea semipallida, Nyl. in litt. 40. Lecidea albipretexta, Kn. Thallus albidus v. cinereo-albidus minute granulosus tenuis continuus (matricibus diffractis) indeterminatus. Apothecia superficialia parum urceolata parva (diam. 0°35 mm.) rosea v. incarnata intus tota albida. margine albescente prominulo integro cincta, paraphysibus capillaribus subglutinatis. Spore in ascis clavato-ventricosis simplices ovoider oleosx v. granulose, longit. *017, crassit. -01 mm. Ad cortices. 41. Lecidea glandulosa, Kn. Thallus albo-cinereus tenuis leprosus v. leproso-squamulosus granulas gonimas virides in nodulis magnis receptis continens. Apothecia rufo- fusca v. luteo-fusca plana demum convexa intus incolorata , margine concolore demum evanescente, hymenio supra fusco, excipulo proprio incolorato structuram radiatam offerente, paraphysibus capillaribus non bene discretis apice coloratis nonnihil granosis. Sporæ in ascis oblongis simplices ovoideæ nonnihil oleosæ v. granulosæ, longit. -015, erassit. 008 mm. _ Ad cortices. 42. Lecidea coccodes, Kn. Thallus ochro-olivaceus tenuis granulatus indeterminatus. Apothecia rufo-fusea v. atro-fusca (diam. 0°6 mm.) marginata, disco plano, margine concolore tumido, intus dilutissime fulva, paraphysibus capillaribus non bene diseretis apice dilatis. Spore in ascis oblongo-clavatis ovoideæ non- nihil granulose simplices incolores, longit. 015, crassit. -009 mm. 48. Platygrapha macrospora, Kn. Thallus ochroleucus granulosus tenuis indeterminatus. Apothecia atra innata (diam. 0-7 mm.) plana difformia a thallo granuloso preetecta immar- ; ex- eipulum nullum ; paraphyses adglutinate subgrumose. Spore aciculares reciz circiter 18-septate incolores, longit. -065, crassit. 0025 mm. Lecidea interponens, Nyl. in litt. TRANS NZINSTITUTE, VOL. XIPLXIIT. Se re ee eh) ee Í qe CT BEATAE e | 28 eee LICHENE S CKnight. del. AB. lith. Knieut.—On the Lichenographia of New Zealand. 377 44. Platygrapha myriommata, Kn. Thallus albido-viridi-einerascens v. albo-cinerascens minute areolato- granulosus sub-indeterminatus. Apothecia prominentia a thallo albo ocellato pretexta—in initio alia abortiva, disco atro sepe in centro albo intus car- bonaceo, partim fecunda tum plana v. convexa ferruginosa demum tenuiter a thallo prætexta ; hymenium fusco-rubicundum hypothecio nigro enatum ; excipulum proprium nullum ; paraphyses breves ambigue implicatæ non- discrete. Spore in ascis clavatis aciculares utrinque attenuate recte v. subcurvatz 8-5 septate v. simplices, longit. *04, crassit. -0025 mm. Ad cortices arborum. 45. Platygrapha mecistospora, Kn. Thallus albo-cinereus v. albo-glaucescens rimuloso-areolatus v. con- tinuus. Apothecia lecedeiformia (diam. 0°7 v. minora) nigra intus fuscen- tia v. rubro-fuscescentia, juniora innato-emergentia concava dein adnata plana v. convexa exeipulo proprio (perithecio) atro-fusco integro marginata, epithecio fusco grumoso indurato (excipulo proprio continuato), paraphysi- bus discretis subtilissimis ramosis apice grumosis excipulo atro enatis. Spore in ascis elongato-cylindraceis aciculari-cylindrice 16-85-septate, longit. 0-18, crassit. -0085. Ad cortices. Lecidea pleistophragmia, Nyl. in litt. 46. Verrucaria leptostegia, Kn. Thallus cinerascens areolato-diffractus indeterminatus. Apothecia semi- immersa minuta globosa; perithecium nudum atrum convexum v. hemi- spherieum ; paraphyses graciles discrete amphithecio tenui dilute fusco oriunde. Spore in ascis cylindraceis oblonge v. fusiformi-oblongse v. obovate dilute luteole, longit. 02, crassit. 006 mm. Spermagonia immersa minuta globosa; spermatia oblonga v. linearia 4-septata, longit. 018, crassit. 004 mm., conceptaculo tenui oriunda. Itis not absolutely certain that the spermagones, described above, belong to V. leptostegia. Hitherto I have failed to find apothecia and spermagones on the same thallus, except in the specimen from which the above descrip- tion is drawn, and even in this instance they are not thoroughly mixed together, while the thallus on which the spermagones were found is cer- tainly of a somewhat lighter tint than the portion bearing apothecia, although in every other respect it is uniform. This scarcely perceptible difference in depth of tint is not of itself important. "The spermatia, it will be seen, resemble in every respect those of Verrucaria byssacea (vera), Scher. (vide Leighton’s figure No. 4, Plate XVI., Angiocarpous Lichens); but differ widely from the simple spermatia found on Scherer’s-own specimen, No. 286, Lich. Helv. Exsice. 43 378 : Transactions.— Botany. 47. Megalospora dispora, Kn Thallus cinereus granulatus continuus. Apothecia atro-fusea super- ficialia convexa (diam. 0:6 mm.) immarginata; excipulum proprium dilute ochraceum ; hymenium grumosum fuscidulum paraphysibus væris destitutum hypothecio crasso dilute luteo enatum. Spore in ascis pyriformibus bine ellipsoides simplices ineolores, longit. ‘042, crassit. 02 mm.; episporium et endosporium corio crasso disjuncta. Ad cortices. 48. Lecanora homologa, Nyl. Thallus sordide albo-cinereus sublævis indeterminatus. PERES (made- facta diam. *1 mm.) disco rufo plano, margine tumido subgranuloso albo, paraphysibus non bene discretis apice granosis fuscescentibus, excipulo thal- lode pallido gonimico calluloso, gonimia magna. Spore ovoideæ 8-loculares, loculis tubulo tenui junctis, incolores, longit. ‘024, crassit. 012 mm. Ad cortices. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES XII. ano XIII. Fig. Fig. 1. Sticta amphisticta, Kn. 12. Bacidia subseripta, Kn. a, spores. a, two spores b, ascus with spore 13. Bacidia glomerulosa, Kn. 2. Sticta quce, um; a, three spores a, ascus with spores. b, granule gonime in nodule. 3. Pannaria atro-fumosa, Kn. c, granule gonime. a, ascus with spores. 14. Bacidia eucoccodes, Kn. b, granule gonime. a, à separate spore. 4. Pannaria apiculata, Kn. a, ascus with spores. b, granule gonime. 1 5. Pannaria triptophylla, Ach b, granule gonime in nodule. c, ascus with spores. . Bacidia spirospora, Kn. a, ascus with spores. et a, ascus with spores. b, spore separate. 6. Pannaria subsimilis, Kn. 16. Bacidia melastegia, Kn. a, ascus with spores. a, ascus with spores. 8. Pannaria biatorina, Kn. 17. Bacidia anceps, Kn. a, ascus with spores. a, two spores. b, two spores. 18. Bacidia cerasentera, Kn. c, granule gonime, a, spore. 9. Pannaria eg Kn. 19. Bacidia melasema, Kn. a, spores in 8. a, two spores. b, two ee a granule gonims. | 20. Bacidia mesospora, Kn 10. Physcia plinthiza, Nyl. a, ascus with spores. a, three spores. b, spore. 11. Lecanora babingtonii, Mass. 21. Bacidia stenospora, Kn. d, ascus with spores and three sepa- a, ascus with spores. rate spores. b, Spore. b, Lecanora punicea, pas iwospores.| 22. Bacidia pedicellata, Kn, €, n ” two spores. a, spore. Knieut.—On the Lichenographia of New Zealand, 379 (Description of Plates XII. and XIII.—continued. ) 23. Bacidia rimosa, Kn. 40. Lecidea albipretexta, Kn. a, two spores. Ascus with spores. 24. Bacidia carneo-rufa, Kn 41. Lecidea glandulosa, Kn. a, spore. a, ascus with spores. 25. Bacidia rosello-carnea, Kn. b, granule gonims in nodule. a, two spores. c. ascus with spores. 26. Bacidia pseudo-pyrra, Kn. 42. Lecidea coccodes, Kn. a, ascus with spores. a, ascus with spores. b, spore. b, paraphysis. 27. Bacidia leuco-carpa, Kn. 48. Platygrapha macrospora, Kn. a, spore. a, apothecium, magnified about 40 28. Bacidia spodoeleina, Kn. r a, Spore. , twos 29. Bacidia chryso-carpa, Kn. 44, Patra ioiai, Kn. a, Spore. apothecium, magnified about 40 30. Bacidia nanospora, Kn. didtur. a, spore. b, three sp b, granule gonime in nodule. 45. pean nis Kn. 31. Bacidia pannaroidea, Kn. a, ascus, with spor a, granule gonime in nodule. b, apothecium, aie o about 40 b, spore, diameters. 32. Bacidia rhodocarpa, Kn. k 46. Verrucaria leptostegia, Kn. a, ascus with spores. a, apothecia, magnified about 40 dia- b, granulæ gonimæ in nodule. meters. . 98. Bacidia albido-prasina, Kn. b. spores in ascus. a, spore. : c, spermagonium, magnified about 40 94. Lecidea cerino-carpa, Kn. diameters. a, ascus with spores d, matia. b, granule gonimæ in nodule. 47. Mapiisooré dispora, Kn. 35. Lecidea rhypoderma, Kn. : a, &pothecium, magnified about 40 Ascus with spores. diameters. 36. Lecidea parvifolia v. corallina, Tuck. b, spore. Ascus with spores. c, ascus with two spores, less highly 37. Lecidea microdactyla, Kn. magnified, Ascus with spores 48, Lecanora a oe vim 38. Lecidea conisalea, Kn. a, Spores in asc Ascus with spores. b, spore. 39. Lecidea semipallida, Kn. Three spo: : Norz.—The figures magnified about 900 diameters, except where otherwise noted. 880 Transactions.— Botany. Arr. LVI.—Notes on New Zealand Plants. By J. Bucuanay, F.L.8. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 21st February, 1880.] Mesembryanthemum equilaterale, Haw. Baron von Mueller informs me that this species is often found accom- panying Mesembryanthemum australis, Soland., and may be distinguished by the longer acutely trigonous leaves and pulpy fruit. Zannichellia palustris, Linn.* According to Baron von Mueller, there is little doubt that the plant under this name belongs to the genus Lepilena. The difference between Zanni- chellia and Lepilena consists in the male flowers. These may be easily found all the year round in New Zealand at the swollen bases of the leaves, and generally on distinet plants from the female. Solanum vescum, F. Muell. Respecting this species, its author states that it may often be found growing with Solanum aviculare, Forst. It is a smaller shrub, and is dis- tinguished from the latter by the angular dark-green branches, small entire dark-green leaves, darker coloured flowers, with somewhat different stamens, berries small, roundish, and green, never egg-shaped or orange-colour when ripe. The natives of Australia always avoid the fruit of S. aviculare, as poisonous, but eat with impunity that of S. vescum. The following plants have been recently added to the flora of New Zealand :— Oreostylidium, Berggren, nov. gen. This genus is founded on a small alpine, Stylidium subulatum, Hook. fil, Handb. N.Z. Flora, I., 168; placed in that genus by Hooker from imperfect flowering specimens. Oreostylidium differs from Stylidium in the deeply divided corolla, short erect column, and indehiscent capsule. Habitat in New Zealand, Ruapehu Mountain, Swampy Hill near Dunedin, Inver- cargill, Berggren; Nelson Mountains, Travers ; Haast. Trans. Hoy. Soc. Lund, 1878, p. 1. Abrotanella linearis, Berggren, n. sp. A larger plant than A. pusilla of Hook. fl, Handbook N.Z. Flora, L., 139. Scape longer and bracteate. Leaves long, obtuse, spreading, Otira Gorge, Canterbury, 8,000ft. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lund, 1878, p. 14. Dracophyllum acerosum, Berggren, n. sp. Mount Torlesse and Bealy River, Canterbury. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lund, 1878, p. 15. inen in Nee Quo. 2 eee ee * [For reference to the occurrence in New Zealand of Zannichellia (Lepilena) palus- tris, Linn., and L. preissii, F. Mueller, see papers by T. Kirk, F.L.S., in Trans. N.Z. Inst., IMI., 143; VIL, 508; X. App. xl.—Ed.] Bucuanan.—On New Zealand Plants. 881 Plantago triandra, Berggren, n. sp. Differs from other New Zealand species in the solitary flowers, which are subsessile in the woolly axils of the leaves. Corolla 8-lobed, sepals minute, capsule scarious, seeds numerous. Otira Gor